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REPORT 



On the Method of Teaching English Grammar, and on Text Books 
to the Superintendent of Common Schools in the State of New- 
York; By Ralph K. Finch, Esq., Deputy Superintendent of 
Common Schools, Steuben Co. — {Assembly Documents, No. 34- 
pp. 577-589.) 

To the Hon. Samuel Young, Superintendent of Common Schools: 

SIR — I have endeavored to perform the task assigned me, and beg leave to sub- 
mit the following remarks on the method of teaching English grammar. 

I have not the vanity to believe that the plan here recommended is the best that 
can be devised, but it is one that I have tested in the school room, and found emi- 
nently successful. 

I am, sir, with sentiments of high esteem, your obt. servant, 

R. K. FINCH, 
Superintendent Common Schools, Steuben County. 

REMARKS ON THE METHOD OF TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the study of English grammar, three things should be steadily- 
kept in view. 1st. To acquire an accurate knowledge of the princi- 
ples and facts of the science. 2ct. To become prompt and expert in 
the application of these, both in analysis and composition: and, 3d. 
By means of this to educate or train the mental faculties, in the most 
effectual and profitable manner. The first of these, in the beginning 
at least, is chiefly an exercise of the memory: the second, combines 
with this the exercise of the judgment or reasoning powers; and it is 
in the proper direction of these, that the skill of the teacher, aided 
by his text book, leading the pupil to think, to reason, and to arrive 
at conclusions by the use of his own faculties, is required to effect 
the third. 

It may be proper here to notice a subject which has of late attracted 
the attention of the writer; it is the practice of committing accu- 
rately to memory, or by rote, as it is rather ungenerously called. 
The time has been, (and in many places still is) when teachers 
seemed to think their whole duty consisted in requiring their pupils 
to commit their text book to memory, to assign them their daily 
task, and hear them recite it off, parrot- like, and he who made few- 
est mistakes was the best scholar. I have known this process gone 
through, not only with English grammar, but with Karnes, Smellie's 
Philosophy, and even Euclid, in some schools of high pretensions. 
Nothing could be more preposterous or useless; and such a mode 
of teaching has fallen under the just condemnation of all sensible 
men. But it appears to me that even sensible men are now mislead- 
ing the public mind into the opposite extreme; which, though not 
so absurd, nor so injurious, is still an error, and has a pernicious 
influence on education. Grammar, and every thing else, many think 
should be taught by mere conversational lectures, without requiring 
any committing to memory on the part of the pupils. The result is, 
a great deal seems to be accomplished in little time. Grammar is 
taught in six lessons, without any effort on the part of the learner. 
If the teacher is skilful, the pupils, by being led to understand the 
subject, will be delighted, and suppose they have acquired a great 



deal. But such acquisitions are like " morning clouds;" the pupils 
have scarcely left the teacher, when all is gone. The true method, 
it appears to me, is to combine the two. " In medio tutissimus ibis." 

The leading principles of grammar, (and everything else,) should 
be fixed in the mind by being carefully committed to memory, and 
fixed there by repeated rehearsals, and wrought into the understand- 
ing by familiar illustrations and exercises. Even allowing pupils 
to give the sense of the rule, instead of the ipsissima verba, (the 
very words,) has a pernicious effect. For not only in that way 
does it fail, generally of being strictly accurate, but at every repeti 
tion it will be given differently, and thus in a short time will be- 
come uncertain, and (if I may use the expression) chaotic,- whereas, 
if always repeated in the same way, the connexion of the words be- 
comes so associated in the mind, and so firmly lodged, as to be al- 
ways there, and always accurate. Without this, there may be a 
confused idea of the principle, or rule, and to be sure of it the text 
book must be at hand, and resorted to — with it, the principle is in 
delibly fixed in the mind, always present, always ready; so that in 
fact the little labor expended in committing accurately to memory, 
saves a great deal of labor and inconvenience afterwards. 

It is obvious, if these views are correct, that for the attainment of 
the first object proposed in the division of my subject, the leading 
parts of a text book containing the facts and principles designed to 
be thoroughly committed to memory, should be brief, accurate, so 
expressed as to be easily understood, and retained in the memory, 
and so distinguished from the subordinate parts, by size of type, or 
otherwise as to be manifest on inspection, and moreover in this de- 
partment should be neither defective nor redundant. To facilitate 
the second, copious and appropriate exercises should be furnished 
at every step. A grammar that does not furnish these, is essentially 
deficient as a text book. And to aid in the third, the subordinate 
parts of the book should contain illustrations and details, sufficient 
both for teacher and pupil, in developing and acquiring a knowledge 
of the minutise of the subject, and in training the mind to habits of 
reflecting, reasoning and discriminating. If in the study of English 
grammar, any of these be neglected, the result will be a failure. 

The study of English grammar, in common schools, should be 
commenced as soon as the pupil can read with some degree of ease 
and fluency — not sooner, and should be continued till the subject is 
completely mastered. No study seems better adapted to the capaci- 
ty of children, at this stage, than this, as it calls into action, and im- 
proves the memory and reasoning faculties, by exercising them on 
subjects not too difficult Xq be comprehended. The science of lan- 
guage as a branch of education, is surely of equal importance with 
the study of geography or of arithmetic. As a means of disciplin^ 
ing the mind and improving the rational powers, it is far superior 
to the former, which is chiefly an exercise of the memory; and is at 
least equal to the latter: and yet the returns of the county superin 
xendents for 1842, show an aggregate of about forty- one thousand 
studying geography, sixty- four thousand studying arithmetic, and 
only twenty- eight thousand studying grammar. This fact seems to 
show a want of attention to this important study, which is proba 

<3lft 

Mrs- Ada Spinks 



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bly owing to a general prejudice against the study, most people con- 
sidering it mysterious, difficult and useless. It is however a preju- 
dice only, and has its origin not in the character of the study, which, 
when properly conducted, is both easy and attractive; but, as I think, 
in the two following causes.- 

1st. It is owing partly to the character of the text books employ 
ed. These are for the most part, greatly defective in simplicity and 
proper adaptation to the capacity of youthful pupils. In many, the 
definitions, rules and leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and con- 
fused — not properly distinguished from subordinate matter, and ex- 
pressed in language not easy to be understood. Some are so small 
and defective in parts as to be insufficient to direct to a full know- 
ledge of the subject, and so destitute of appropriate exercises, as 
to render what they do contain nearly useless, unless followed by 
something more full and complete; and some are so large, compli- 
cated, and burdened with unnecessary details as to appal the begin- 
ner, and to render the prospect of his ever mastering the subject, 
nearly hopeless. 

2d. This prejudice is owing, in no small degree, perhaps chiefly, 
to defective and injudicious modes of teaching. 

Some teach, if teaching it may be called, by merely requiring the 
pupil to commit the text book to memory, without any explanations 
or illustrations being given, or any pains taken to ascertain whether 
the pupil understands what he studies or not — the teacher merely 
assigns the task and hears it recited. 

What is studied in this way will never be well understood, as the 
memory will be incumbered with a mass of crude materials, the use 
and application of which the pupil has never learned. With such 
learning, it is impossible he should be either pleased or instructed. 

Another error, is the neglect of repeated reviews: which are ne- 
cessary to keep what has been learned fresh before the minds of the 
learners — they proceed onward, and it may be, are well taught as 
they go, but for want of reviewing, by the time they have got to 
the middle they have forgotten the beginning, and when they reach 
the end, but little more time is required to forget the whole. Com- 
paratively few make use of exercises, in parsing or syntax, conse- 
quently no opportunity is afforded to apply the principles learned. 
This indeed must be the case, where text books are used, which do 
not supply them sufficiently, such as many of the compends now in 
use in our schools, which have been introduced on account of their 
cheapness. In parsing, many never exercise their judgment to dis- 
tinguish one part of speech from another, but depend on the infer 
mation of others, or perhaps resort to a dictionary. 
* In all such indolent and mechanical processes, there is no teach- 
ing on the part of the teacher, and with much irksome toil there is 
but little learning on the part of the pupil. No wonder if under 
such a course of heartless and unprofitable labor, the study should 
be avoided and considered dry and uninteresting. A remedy for 
this evil is much needed, and it is in the power of the conscientious 
active and skilful teacher, aided by a good text book, to effect it. 
The following suggestions respecting the method of teaching Eng. 
lish grammar, the result of much experience and observation, will, 



it is "believed, if carried out, go far to bring about a reformation so 
desirable in this branch of common school education. 

In commencing the study of English grammar the first thing to 
be attended to is proper classification. When a school term com- 
mences, care should be taken, as far as possible, to have all the pu- 
pils up at the beginning, and arrangements made for their being 
kept steadily at school till its close. In some studies, such as read- 
ing, spelling, writing, and even geography, early and regular at- 
tendance, though exceedingly desirable, is not so indispensable; but 
in all studies in which subsequent parts cannot be understood with- 
out a knowledge of the preceding, unless the members of the class 
begin all together, and continue regular in their attendance, the 
loss to the delinquents will be very great, and no teacher ought to 
be held responsible for the progress of pupils whose attendance is 
greatly irregular. A pupil entering a class in English grammar, 
properly taught, a fortnight or even a week after it begins, will feel 
the loss to the end, and is in danger of being discouraged by that 
very disadvantage. The same will be the effect of partial attend- 
ance. For this reason, when a term opens, it would be wise to de- 
lay forming classes in English grammar, for a short time, and to 
give notice through the district that a class will be formed on such 
a day, and that it is important for all who intend to join it, to be 
present at the commencement. Pupils who have but little know- 
ledge of the subject would do well to begin the course again, and 
to proceed regularly. The classes should be as few in number as 
possible; two in most schools will be sufficient. 

The class being assembled, the teacher in a few remarks should 
explain the nature and importance of the study, intimating that if 
properly conducted it will prove to be both pleasing and profitable, 
and that a very respectable knowledge of it, which will be of great 
use in after life, may be attained without a great deal of labor, if 
due attention is seriously and steadily bestowed. In order more 
fully and conveniently to illustrate the course of the class, it will 
be necessary for me here to select some good author as a text book. 
We will then suppose Bullions' grammar to be the text book of the 
class , a work of great merit, and one which we shall have occasion 
to notice more particularly in its proper place.* The first lesson 
may then be given out, viz: the definitions, &c, pages 1 and 2, to 
be accurately committed to memory, while the part in small print, 
containing the definitions of the vowels, diphthongs, &c. may be 
**ead over in the class, commented on and illustrated by the teacher, 
a*'d the pupils be directed to read it carefully by themselves, and 
be in readiness at the next recitation to answer questions respect- 
ing them. 

Spelling may, for the present, be passed over, the pupil being 
supposed to have studied that subject already. 

The next lesson may be § 3, the definitions, &c, in large print 
to be committed accurately to memory, and care being taken by the 
teacher, when giving out the lesson, to see that words needing ex- 
planation are explained, and the meaning clearly comprehended. 
In order to illustrate the classification of words under different heads, 

* The work referred to is "The Principles of English Grammar," &c, pp. 216. 



called parts of speech, some familiar remarks may be made respect- 
ing classification in general, and the principles on which it is made; 
and reference may be made to natural history, showing that although 
individual objects are numerous, and almost infinitely varied, yet 
they are capable of being arranged in a few classes, according to 
some points in which all the individuals of the same class agree, 
and by which they are distinguished from those of another class, as 
animals, vegetables and minerals, with the numerous subdivisions 
of each. Or reference may be made to the pupils in a school, who, 
though numerous, are arranged in few classes. 

In like manner the words that make up a language, though very 
numerous and vastly different in their orthography and meaning, 
yet, as many of them agree in certain properties, in which they dif- 
fer again from other words, they are capable of being arranged, and 
are arranged under a few heads or classes called parts of speech. 
Some, for example, are names of objects; others are not names but 
are used to express qualities of names, &c. Some familiar remarks 
of this kind, occasionally interspersed, serve not only to interest the 
pupil and impress the fact so illustrated on his mind, but an intelli- 
gent and skilful teacher will by means of such illustrations call the 
attention of his pupils to remarks they never thought of before, 
though they have always been before their eyes, and in this manner 
train them to habits of reflecting, comparing, classifying and reason- 
ing for themselves. The pleasure which a happy illustration gives 
to the pupils, if thereby the thing illustrated is clearly understood, 
will soon be manifested by the delight expressed in their counte- 
nances. 

These definitions being now accurately committed to the memory 
and recited, together with those from the beginning of the book in 
review, the next lesson may be § 4, in giving out which, some re- 
marks may be made respecting this class of words: that it is the 
smallest class consisting of two words easily remembered; that some 
languages have this class and some have not: the reasons of the 
names definite and indefinite; the different forms of the indefinite 
and the manner in which they are used. These things being com- 
mitted to memory and well understood, the pupils will forthwith 
go through the exercises on the article, as directed in the text book, 
applying the knowledge they have already acquired. 

They may then be directed to point out and name the articles in 
any piece of composition, and show their use in every place, telling 
why the definite is used in this place and the indefinite in that; a in 
one place and an in another. Such exercises, though simple and 
easy, interest the pupil, call the thoughts into action and prepare 
the mind for greater efforts. 

Having perfectly mastered this, and repeatedly gone over all that 
goes before, the class maybe told that they are now to be made ac- 
quainted with a very large and important class of words called 

NOUNS. 
That this is the name given in grammar to all those words which 
are names of things, and that it is by this that they are distinguish- 
ed from all other words; that every word which is the name of any 

1* 



thing we can see, hear, speak of, think of, &c, is a noun, and if a 
word is not the name of something it is not a noun; that names are 
of two kinds j that some names are common to things of the same 
sort, as man, woman, &c, and that others are appropriated to indi- 
viduals of a class, as John, Helen, &c; hence nouns are divided 
into two classes, common and proper. The character of a noun 
being thus wrought into the mind, and the distinction of common 
and proper nouns understood, the pupils should be directed to reduce 
their newly acquired ideas to practice; to mention names of things 
which they see, &c; and without hesitation or difficulty will be 
heard such words as man, book, tree, house, &c, from every tongue. 
With such exercises the class will be delighted, while at the same 
time they are thoroughly instructed, and the idea that the study is 
dry and irksome will be done away. As a farther exercise they 
may now try their skill in finding out the nouns in some piece of 
composition. They will probably make some mistakes, which the 
teacher will kindly point out and show them how they were proba- 
bly made. With a little practice this will become an easy exercise, 
the judgment of the pupil wiil be improved by applying the defini- 
tions to every word and ranking it as a noun, or rejecting it from 
the class according as it answers to the rule by which it is to be 
tried, and there will be no need to resort to a dictionary or to a 
neighbor to find out to what class such words as the above belong. 
This, with review, wiil be sufficient for one or two recitations.* 
Having been made familiar with this exercise, the properties of the 
noun will next be attended to; but one at a time. 

As person, properly speaking, is not so much a property of a 
noun as a mode of using it in speech — the same noun, without 
change of form or meaning, being of the first person according to 
one mode of using it — of the second, according to another, and of 
the third, according to another, nothing more need be said of it than 
is contained in § 6, till the pupil comes to the first rule of syntax. 

The next property to be considered is gender. It may be remark- 
ed to the class, that nouns are divided into three classes, according 
to their relation to sex; those denoting males being called mascu- 
line, those denoting females, feminine, and those denoting neither 
males nor females, neuter or neuter gender, and this illustrated by 
proper examples. The teacher may then remark on the simplicity 
and beauty of the English language, above almost any other, and 
as before, the pupil will now be desirous of applying his knowledge, 
by telling the gender of every noun he sees, in which, of course, he 
should be indulged. 

Next proceed to number. Explain the distinction of singular and 
plural; cause the rules for forming the plural to be accurately com- 
mitted to memory, and then apply them by forming the plural of the 
list of nouns, page 13, giving the rule for each plural formed; thus, 
fox, ply. foxes. *~ " Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x or o, form the plu- 
ral by adding es. Booh, plu. books." " The plural is commonly 
formed by adding s to the singular," &c. By repeating the rules in 
this manner, every time, they will be committed to memory with 

* A class should never be tasked with more than what they can master with i 
It is better to err by giving too little than too much. Festina lente. 



little labor, and be indelibly fixed there. The 3d paragraph in this 
list of exercises to be used thus: " book" is singular because it de- 
notes one, plu. books, and give the rule. " Trees plu. because it 
denotes more than one; singular, tree, &c. So of the rest. §§ 9 
and 10, except the first part of § 9, may be passed over until the 
grammar is reviewed. 

This being well understood, and the reviews of preceding parts 
kept up daily, next proceed in the same way with case, § 11, ex- 
plaining the meaning of the term., and requiring the definitions, in 
large print, to be carefully committed to memory. As the nomina- 
tive and objective cases of nouns are of the same form, and can be 
distinguished only by their use in a sentence, which the pupil is not 
prepared to analyze, he should not be troubled with this distinction 
till he comes to pages 47 and 48. The possessive having always 
the apostrophe, is easily distinguished. The method of using the 
exercises on gender, number and case, page 18, is sufficiently ex- 
plained in the note. This exercise being what is called parsing a 
noun, should be continued until the whole class are expert in it. In 
all this process the pupils should be kept lively, and caused to go 
through these exercises rapidly as well as accurately. By so doing, 
a great deal can be done in a little time, and the mind kept under 
sufficient excitement to render it susceptible of deep impression. 

By proceeding in this way, slowly but surely, thoroughly dispos- 
ing of one part before proceeding to another, keeping the whole 
fresh in the mind from the beginning, or as far back as the teachei 
may deem proper, drilling repeatedly on the exercises, and applying 
the rules where rules are applicable, every thing belonging to the 
etymology of nouns, will be so familiar, so well understood, and so 
firmly riveted in the mind, that no farther trouble need be appre- 
hended, and the class may now proceed to the 

ADJECTIVE. 

This part of speech being indeclinable in English, and having 
only the accident of comparison, all that is necessary here is to com- 
mit the definitions, and rules for comparison, and apply them. Con- 
nected with the definition, the main thing the teacher has to do, is 
to teach the pupil how to distinguish this part of speech from any 
other. It always describes a noun or pronoun, by expressing some 
quality or property belonging to it, and is generally placed before 
the word which it qualifies. Examples will best illustrate this, and 
for this purpose the pupil may be directed to point out the adjectives 
in the exercises, or in any piece of composition that may be at hand. 
When the idea of an adjective is once wrought into the mind of the 
pupil he will not find much difficulty in distinguishing it from other 
parts of speech; and as a pleasing exercise the whole class may 
have it assigned them as a lesson, on a slate or on paper, at school 
or at home, as may be thought best, to write all the adjectives in a 
given paragraph or page, with the nouns they qualify opposite them. 
As a technical way of assisting young children in this exercise, 
they may be told that any word, (the possessive case of nouns ex- 
cepted) which makes sense with the word thing after it, is an ad- 
jective; as, A good thing; a bad thing. As a farther exercise, the 



8 

teacher may give the class a number of nouns to write in a column, 
on the right hand side of the slate, and ask them to write down, on 
the same line, all the adjectives they can think of, which will prop- 
erly describe that noun, thus, black, white, dapple, bay. fat, lean, 
&c, horse. Or he may reverse this process, and give them a few 
adjectives to write in a column, on the left hand side of the slate, 
and ask them to write on the right of each, on the same line, as many 
nouns as they can think of, to which the adjective will apply; thus, 
beautiful, trees, houses, garden, fiower, woman, child, &c. In this 
way an industrious and ingenious teacher may exercise and interest 
the minds of his pupils, and as soon as they are acquainted with only 
two or three parts of speech, he may begin with these to teach them 
the art of composition as well as of analysis. 

P&ONOUNS. 

The pronouns are so few in number, that all necessary to be done, 
is to commit to memory the names of the different classes, and the 
pronouns under each. This can be accurately done with little labor. 
The teacher, however, as elsewhere, by oral and familiar instruc- 
tion, has something to do to explain, illustrate and distinguish, in 
which he will be assisted by the notes and observations interspersed 
through the grammar, remembering always to go back, and keep 
all fresh, by repeated rehearsals or reviews; an exercise which will 
be easy, and therefore pleasant, unless too much neglected. Here, 
as in the preceding, the pupil must reduce his newly acquired know- 
ledge to practice. Page 28 will furnish him with suitable exercises. 

THE VERB. 

The first lesson on this part of grammar should be prefaced with 
some familiar remarks respecting this part of speech; as, that it is 
the most important class of words; that we cannot speak or write a 
sentence without a verb in some form; that it assumes more forms 
and is used in a greater variety of ways than any other part of 
speech. Hence its name, verb, the word, emphatically the word. 
It is therefore the more important that it should be thoroughly stud- 
ied and understood; and that though it is the most difficult part of 
speech to master, yet with a little diligence and attention on their 
part, they may become as well acquainted with it as with any other. 

The pupils may be directed to commit the definitions as their first 
lesson, or such portion of them as can be thoroughly mastered, and 
to proceed in the way above mentioned with §§ 20, 21, 22, 23. Or 
those in §§ 22 and 23, as well as 24, may be omitted for the present, 
and the class proceed from § 21 to 25 and 26; and while this process 
of committing is going on, the teacher should make use of the text 
to illustrate in a familiar way the meaning and distinguishing cha- 
racter of this part of speech. As a technical test, young pupils 
may be informed that a word that makes sense with I or he before 
it, is a verb. Those of more mature judgment will not stand in 
need of such aid. He should also point out the meaning of the 
terms transitive and intransitive and the distinction between the 
verbs so called. This distinction it is important that the pupil 
should understand and be able to make accurately and promptly. 



This can easily be made plain even to very young children, by 
means of the directions given in section 19; but as children do not 
so readily comprehend what they read as what is told them in a 
plain and familiar manner, a little pains on the part of the teacher 
here will be well rewarded. The pupil may then be exercised in 
making this distinction, first in very short and simple sentences, such 
as those at page 47, second paragraph, and afterwards on longer 
ones. The formula of the verb must next be accurately committed 
to memory, and the pupils exercised in repeating it in every way 
that can be thought of, till they can do it accurately., beginning at 
once and going through any mood or tense that may be named, and 
tell at once and without hesitation in what part, i. e., in what 
voice, mood, tense, number, and person, any part that may be nam 
ed is. It will greatly facilitate this, to teach the pupil to distinguish 
the tenses by their signs, and to be ready at once to tell the sign of 
each tense that may be named. Thus: what are the signs of the 
perfect indicative ? Ans. Have, hast, hath or has. Of the pluper- 
fect? Ans. Had, hadst, &c. The active voice of the verb " to love" 
being thus completely mastered, (and until this is done a step be 
yond should not be taken,) the class may be drilled in the exercises, 
pages 47 and 48, according to the directions there given. This be- 
ing done, proceed in the same way with the verb " to be," and the 
passive voice of the verb " to love," which will now be accom- 
plished with the greatest ease in a fourth part of the time that was 
required to commit the active voice. The class should then be thor- 
oughly drilled in the exercises, pages 51, 52, and 56. At a subse- 
quent period, it should be required to conjugate the irregular verbs, 
§ 32, going through them at the rate of a page or a half page per 
diem, according to the capacity of the pupils. 

The definitions of the adverb, preposition, conjunction and inter- 
jection, are next to be acquired, which requires no special notice, 
only that, as the prepositions and conjunctions are few in number, 
it may be as well to commit them to memory, as it is not easy for 
young persons to distinguish them from other words by their defini- 
tions or use. 

This brings the pupil through etymology, and with ordinary dili- 
gence it may all be thoroughly done in five or six weeks, if the 
teacher takes pains to keep the attention of his pupils awake, and 
to prevent their falling into a state of mental indolence — a state of 
mind in which little benefit is derived from the best instruction. 

PARSING. 
The class is now prepared for parsing etymologically in simple 
sentences promiscuously, and should be drilled for some time in this 
exercise, for the purpose of making them expert in applying the 
knowledge previously gained, in distinguishing the different parts of 
speech as they occur promiscuously in a sentence, and enabling them 
to tell readily their accidents or properties, using always the fewest 
words possible, and stating them always in the same way. Section 
40 furnishes exercises for this purpose, and general directions are 
there given, which will be found very useful to the student. In this 
exercise, the class may be properly exercised for two or three weeks, 
and in the mean time the previous part of the grammar should be 



10 

gone over two or three times in review, — first in short portions and 
then in longer, — till the whole becomes so familiar that farther at- 
tention is unnecessary. By this time the class will he prepared to 
enter with ease, spirit and intelligence, on the next part, namely, 

SYNTAX. 

Here they may be told that hitherto they have been learning chiefly 
the character, forms, and changes of w T ords, and analyzing sentences 
containing them. That they are now to be taught how to put words 
together in a proper manner, according to approved rules and me- 
thods. The part of grammar w r hich teaches to do this is called syn- 
tax; a word that signifies combining or arranging together, viz: 
words in a sentence. After acquiring a correct knowledge of the 
definitions and general principles, §§ 43, 44, and 45, the next lesson 
may be Rule I., § 46. No particular effort is required in commit- 
ting either this or the following rules to memory. The simple re- 
petition of them from the book, as each sentence in the exercises 
under the rule is corrected, will generally be sufficient. Or they 
may have two or three rules assigned them to commit daily, so as in 
this exercise to keep in advance of the other. 

It will be necessary in entering on the exercises, to point out to 
the pupil the precise object of each rule, as he advances; to intimate 
that the exercises contain violations of that rule only; that his busi- 
ness is to find out, in each sentence, what is contrary to the rule 
and to alter it accordingly. Under the first rule, for example, it 
may be necessary to remind the pupil that every sentence contains 
at least one distinct affirmation; that the verb is the word which 
makes the affirmation; and that the person or thing of which the 
verb affirms is its subject or nominative; and that according to the 
rule these must always agree in number and person; i. e., the verb 
must be in the same number and person with the nominative. Un- 
der Rule I., then, the business in each sentence is to find the verb and 
the nominative, in order to compare them and see if they agree, and 
if they do not, to alter the verb so as to make it agree with its nom 
inative. In order to discover the verb and its nominative, the pupil 
maybe directed to read the sentence and see what it means; he may 
then be asked, (having read the first sentence, e. g., "I loves read- 
ing,") what is spoken of? Answer. I. What is said of I, or what 
is / said to do ? Answer. I loves. Then loves is the verb and J its 
nominative: compare them and see if they are in the same number 
and person. Nominative / is the first person, and loves is the third 
person; loves then should be love, to agree with I in the first per- 
son. Or the teacher may proceed Somatically as follows: 

Teacher. Read the first sentence. Pupil. U I loves reading." 
T. Who or what is spoken of here ? P. I. T. What is 1 said to 
do? P. To love. T. Then which word expresses the person spok- 
en of? P. /is the person spoken of, and is therefore the nomina- 
tive. T. To what verb is I the nominative ? P. To the verb loves. 
T. In what should they agree according to the rule? P. In num- 
ber and person. T. Do they so agree ? w P. No. I is the first per- 
son singular, and loves is the third. T. What must be done to 
make them agree? P. Change loves to love. T. Read the sen- 



11 

tence so corrected, and give the rule? P. I love reading. " A verb 
agrees," &c 

Having gone through all the exercises under this rule, in this way 
or in any other way the teacher may find best calculated to commu- 
nicate the idea, they may begin again and go over the whole with- 
out being questioned; thus, loves should be love in the first person 
and singular number, because I, its nominative, is in the first per- 
son and singular number, "A verb must agree," &c. After this the 
whole may be read over by the pupils, each reading a sentence, and 
only marking the corrected word with greater emphasis; thus, il I 
love reading;" " a soft answer turns away wrath." &c., giving the 
rule as before; in this wa,y a class will easily proceed at the rate of 
one rule a day, reviewing the preceding as before. Every part be- 
ing thoroughly understood as they proceed, they will take pleasure 
in it, their perception and power of reasoning will every day ex- 
pand and become more vigorous, and at the end of the course their 
improvement will be astonishing to themselves. 

After going through the ru 7 js of syntax, a farther advance and 
exercise of the powers of the pupils will be found in Syntactical 
parsing, sufficiently explained in § 84, and in the promiscuous exer- 
cises in § 85, all of which, being corrected, may be used for exercises 
in syntactical parsing, which should be followed up by parsing the 
best authors, both in prose and poetry, while they should at the 
same time be carried through the subsequent parts of the grammar. 

As soon as a class gets through the rules of syntax, they should 
be instructed in short and simple exercises in composition. By so 
doing they will furnish exercises for themselves, and should be led 
to correct their own mistakes, in the same way in which they cor 
rected the exercises under the rules. 

TEXT BOOKS. 

It is not my intention to attempt an elaborate review of the prin- 
cipal works on this subject, as the discussion would extend these re- 
marks, (which are already too prolix,) to an inconvenient length. 
Authors can generally set forth the merits of their own productions, 
and they seldom fail to exhibit the faults and defects of rival works, 
with peculiar acumen, and with eloquence hardly' to be expected 
from persons less interested. It is therefore not probable that any 
literary production of even moderate pretensions, will escape with- 
out a little wholesome criticism. 

Early in the year 1842, wishing to select some work on the sub- 
ject of English grammar which I could recommend as a text book 
to the schools under my superintendency; I collected all the works 
on the subject which seemed to have any considerable claims to con- 
sideration, in order to make a comparison of their respective merits. 
A cursory examination was sufficient to induce me to throw aside 
several as materially defective and unsuitable, but I retained upon 
my table for a more thorough inspection those of Kirkham, Hazen, 
Pierce, Brown and Bullions. After a patient and protracted exami 
nation, the first three in the order in which they are mentioned above 
for reasons which it would be too tedious to mention, were laid 
aside Being satisfied of the eminent merits of the works of 



12 

Bullions and Brown, and certain that I should make choice of one of 
them for the purpose I had in view, I reserved them for a careful 
comparison, not with a view to ascertain their intrinsic value, of 
which I was already satisfied, it having been the object of my first 
and second perusal, but that I might determine which would be the 
most suitable for general use in our common schools. Having made 
the comparison with as much candor and ability as I could bring to 
the task, I came to the following conclusion: that as treatises on 
grammar the works were of nearly equal merits, that of Brown 
being somewhat more copious in its exercises and full and argu- 
mentative in its notes and observations on the language, while Bull- 
ions' is far superior to the former in conciseness and simplicity of 
style and in clearness of arrangement. The rules are well express- 
ed and the principles clearly developed, while the notes and philo- 
sophical observations are fully sufficient, without that redundancy 
which characterizes the corresponding parts of the grammar of Mr. 
Brown, and increases its volume to such a degree as to render it 
truly appalling to beginners. 

The grammar of Dr. Bullions has also the advantage of being 
suitable for young students and those commencing the study, thus 
saving the expense of a u first book" or " first lines," while at 
the same time it is a complete grammar of the language, and avail- 
able for every purpose for which Mr. Brown's can possibly be used. 
It is also one of a " series;" and a pupil having studied it, can take 
up the grammars of the Latin and Greek, by the same excellent 
author, in which the rules and arrangements, so far as the princi- 
ples and analogies of the language will admit, are the same, and 
proceed with a facility under other circumstances not attainable. 
This is a consideration of no small importance to those who may 
wish to advance from the common school to the academy and the 
college. But I cannot here set forth all that influenced my mind 
m coming to the conclusion that the grammar of Dr. Bullions was 
superior to any other I had examined as a text book for use in our 
common schools. Suffice it to say, that I recommended it for use 
in the schools in this county. 

Since the subject of these observations was assigned me by the 
Department, I have made another investigation, and come to the 
same conclusion. 

Respectfully submitted. 

R. K. FINCH, 
Sup. of Com. Schools for the Co. of Steuben. 

Bath, Nov. 5, 1843. 



$#* Just published, by Pratt, Woodford & Co., 63 Wall Street, 
N. Y., (late Robinson, Pratt & Co.,) " Practical Lessons on 
English Grammar and Composition; for Young Beginners: " pp. 132. 
BjRev P Bullions, D. D. 



THE 

PRINCIPLES 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
ENGLISH GRAMMARS EXTANT. 

WITH 

COPIOUS EXERCISES 

IN 

PARSING AND SYNTAX, 

FOR THE USE OF ACADEMIES AND COMMON SCHOOLS. 

A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED; 

WITH 

AN APPENDIX 

OF VARIOUS AND USEFUL MATTER. 



By the Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 

PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY : AUTHOR 

OF PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR; AND PRINCIPLES 

OF GREEK GRAMMAR. 



ELEVENTH EDITION. 

NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY PRATT, WOODFORD & CO., 

No. 63 WALL STREET. 

1845. 



T^ 






[Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by 
Peteh Bullions, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the 
United States, for the Southern District of New- York.] 






PREFACE. 



A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered ai* 
indispensable part of an English education ; and is now taught as 
such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great num- 
ber of elementary works which have recently appeared on this subject, 
is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been bestowed upon 
it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favour than the Grammar 
of Lindley Murray ; and the high rank which it still holds among 
the numerous works which have appeared since its publication, is a 
decided testimony to the soundness of its principles and the excellence 
of the system. With all its excellence, however, it is far from being 
incapable of improvement ; and the attempt to add to its value as a ma- 
nual for schools, by correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is 
superfluous or unimportant, compressing what is prolix, elucidating 
what is obscure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what 
is defective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement to 
which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of the pre- 
sent day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if well executed, 
to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my design ; and though 
there may be reason to regret that it has not been undertaken by some 
one more capable of doing justice to the subject, still it is hoped that 
the labour bestowed, in order to carry it into effect, will not be alto- 
gether in vain. 

In endeavouring to avoid the minutiae and diffuseness of the larger 
Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite extreme. 
The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more than a synop- 
sis of the larger work ; presenting a mere outline of the subject, alto- 
gether too meagre to be of much service to the learner. The same 
remark is applicable to a great number of smaller works which have 
been published with a similar view ; namely, to serve as an introduc- 
tion to a more extended system. They are incapable themselves of 
imparting a satisfactory knowledge of the subject ; and yet it often 
happens, perhaps even in a majority of cases, that those who have 



IV PREFACE. 

commenced with the " introduction," have neither the time nor the 
means to get beyond it: and besides, unless the "introduction" be 
constructed on the same principle of arrangement and expression with 
the one which is intended to succeed, it will probably be found worse 
than useless ; for when a particular arrangement and phraseology 
have become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying 
another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement and 
expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really valu- 
able, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to be 
adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed ; com- 
prehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult, as well 
as in easy cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered fa- 
miliar to the learner by numerous examples and exercises. 

To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools 
ought to be, the present compilation has been made, — with what suc- 
cess, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully submit- 
ted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at. In collect- 
ing materials, I have freely availed myself of the labours of others who 
have treated on the subject since the days of Murray, and particularly 
of those whose object has been similar to my own. Lennie's " Prin- 
ciples of English Grammar," deservedly esteemed, in Britain, the best 
compend for the use of schools which has yet appeared, I have adopted 
as the ground plan of my work. The works of Murray, Angus, 
Connel, Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Webster, and others in the ex- 
tensive collection of my friend Dr. Beck, to which 1 have enjoyed free 
access, have been consulted ; and from all of them has been carefully 
selected, condensed, and arranged, whatever seemed to be suitable to 
my purpose. For several valuable suggestions, also, I am indebted to 
Dr. T. R. Beck, and several other literary friends, who kindly exam- 
ined my MSS. before they were sent to press, and freely communicated 
their sentiments. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of 
much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of sub- 
sequent writers, that will not be found condensed here. 

On the subject of Etymology, much expansion has been deemed un- 
necessary : I have therefore generally contented myself with stating 
results, without embarrassing the work with the processes, often tedious 
and obscure, which have led to them. In the classification of words, 
almost all writers differ from each other ; and though on this subject 
there has been much discussion, nothing has yet been proposed which, 
on the whole, appears less objectionable in principle, or more conve- 



PREFACE. V 

nient in practice, than that of Murray, which is therefore generally re- 
tained. 

In Syntax, greater fulness has been considered proper. In the ar- 
rangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the same 
order ; and that here adopted is somewhat different from any other. 
Without regarding much the usual division of Syntax into Concord and 
Government, those rules are placed first which appear to be most sim- 
ple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care has been feaken, however, 
to connect with a leading rule those of a subordinate character allied 
to it, and to add under every rule such notes and observations as ap- 
peared necessary to its illustration. Copious exercises in false syntax 
follow each rule, generally on the same page ; and exercises adapted 
to the notes, &c are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the 
note to which they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the 
judgment of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exer- 
cises on the preceding rules promiscuously arranged ; and at the 
end, promiscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and obser- 
vations ; — the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps 
not fewer examples than Murray's separate volume of Exercises on 
the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience has 
been consulted. The leading principles have been made so prominent 
by being printed on a large type, that they may be easily studied by 
the youngest classes without a separate compend. Every thing ne- 
cessary for the fuller expansion and illustration of these principles, has 
been introduced in its place ; and the whole furnished with questions 
and appropriate exercises, in order to render every part familiar to the 
mind of the pupil as he advances, so that no larger treatise, and no 
separate book of exercises, will be necessary. The arrangement of 
the exercises on syntax on the same page with the rule which they 
are designed to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the la- 
bour, both of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of 
the subject. 

Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation is to render 
it a profitable introduction to classical studies. While all languages 
differ from each other in their mode of inflexion, and in some forms of 
expression peculiar to themselves, usually denominated idioms, their 
general principles are, to a very great extent, the same. It would seem, 
therefore, to be proper, in constructing grammars for different lan- 
guages, that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the 
same words. Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of 

1* 



VI PREFACE. 

one language would be a very important aid in the study of another; 
and the opportunity thus afforded of seeing wherein they agree ana 
wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise in com- 
parative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put into the hands 
of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or phraseology from the 
English grammar which he had previously studied, and then in due 
time a Greek grammar different from both, not only is the benefit de- 
rived from the analogy of the different languages in a great measure 
lost, but the whole subject is made to appear intolerably intricate and 
mysterious. To remedy this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to pub- 
lish a series of Grammars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, 
arranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words 
as the genius of the languages would permit. In the prosecution of 
this purpose, the Greek Grammar, on the foundation of Moor's, was 
published in 1831 ; the English Grammar of Murray, in a condensed 
form, embracing every thing valuable from later works, is now offered 
to the public ; and if the plan is favourably received, the Latin Gram- 
mar of Alexander Adam, adapted to the system, with improvements, 
will follow as soon as possible. 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 



This work has been again thoroughly revised, and every error dis- 
covered in the preceding editions has been carefully corrected. A sec- 
tion has been introduced in its proper place on Person, as a modifica- 
tion or accident of the noun. The terms Transitive and Intransitive, 
have been substituted for Active and Neuter, as a more appropriate and 
accurate designation of the two classes of verbs. By this means all 
ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point — the term Active is 
confined to one appropriate use, — and the word Neuter is dispensed with 
so as to be applied solely to the gender of nouns. The designation of 
the tenses formerly used is still retained, while that recommended, p. 
38, as more expressive and appropriate is at the request of some dis- 
tinguished teachers, inserted in brackets after the other ; so that the 



PREFACE. Vll 

one or the other, or both, may be conveniently used as the teacher may 
direct. A page and a half has been added to the section on composi- 
tion, and an Appendix of 29 pages has been added, containing a brief 
statement and examination of some points relative to grammar itself— the 
classification and designation of the parts of speech — an etymological 
vocabulary of grammatical terms, shewing their derivation and mean- 
ing — a list of Latin and French words and phrases, often to be met 
with in English books, — and a selection and explanation of the more 
common law terms, constantly occurring in the reports of legal pro- 
ceedings, and the debates of our legislative assemblies in this country. 

The author takes this opportunity of renewing his grajeful acknow- 
ledgments to those gentlemen who have kindly examined the work, and 
favored him with their observations on it. To the hints derived from 
these, he is chiefly indebted for the improvements that appear in this 
edition. The favorable opinion expressed of the work by the most com- 
petent judges, encourages him to hope that the object he had in view, 
to furnish a simple, concise, and comprehensive manual of English 
Grammar, better adapted to the use of academies and common schools 
than any yet published, is now in a good degree attained. 

The Latin Grammar formerly announced has been published, and 
also the revised edition of the Greek Grammar. These works now 
form a complete series of grammars— English, Latin, and Greek all on 
the same plan, arranged in the same order, and having the definitions, 
rules, and leading parts expressed as near as possible in the same lan- 
guage. By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occa- 
sioned by studying grammars, in these languages, constructed on dif- 
ferent principles is avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable 
introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to 
the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical 
structure, and seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they 
differ. The whole is now submitted to the examination and favorable 
consideration of a discerning public. 

Albany Academy, Sept. 23, 1842. 



CONTENTS OF APPENDIX. 
I. Grammar, 189 

II. Classification of words, 191 

III. Remarks on Different Classes of Words, 192 

IV. Grammatical Nomenclature, 202 

V. Etymological Glossary of Grammatical terms,. . . 204 

VI. Explanation of French Words and Phrases, 209 

VII. Explanation of Latin Words and Phrases, 211 

VIII. Explanation of Law terms, 213 



DIRECTIONS FOR USING THIS GRAMMAR. 

This Grammar being designed for the use of the more advanced scholar, as 
well as of the mere beginner, a few suggestions, the result of some experience, 
respecting the mode of using it, may not be improper. In commencing any study, 
the first care of the judicious teacher will be to excite a proper interest in it in 
the minds of his pupils, and to render their progress as easy and pleasant as pos- 
sible. Without this, the easiest and most engaging studies may he rendered 
irksome and disgusting, and ah relish for, as well as progress in them effectually 
prevented. This evil will be avoided, and a proper interest in the study of En 
glish Grammar excited and maintained, if the following course of study be care- 
fully observed : — 

1. Very young pupils, or mere beginners at any age, should be required to stu- 
dy only the leading- parts which are generally distinguished in the Grammar by 
a larger type. The subordinate parts in smaller tvpe, together with the whole 
of $ 2 ; § 19 from No 5 to 9 ; and the Obs. in § 20,21,22, and 24 should be omit- 
ted till afterwards. And in order to vary the exercise, from ten to twenty or thir- 
ty words of § 32 may be given with each lesson from the beginning, so that the 
whole may be gone through without loss of time, and almost without an effort. 

2. No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can 
easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out. 

3. The portion assigned for every new lesson should be read over to the class, 
and explained, if necessary, by familiar remarks and illustrations ; and care 
should be taken that every pupil know, before he is sent to his seat, what he is 
expected to do at the next recitation, and hoio it is to be done. A little pains 
taken in this way will be amply rewarded by the spirit and pleasure with which 
the lesson will be studieJ, and the rapid progress that will be made. 

4. All rules and definitions, together with the more important parts, should 
be accurately committed to memory, and the whole wrought into the under- 
standing as well as the memory of the pupil, by questions and familiar illus- 
trations adapted to his capacity till he has completely mastered it. To aid in 
this, copious Exercises have been introduced throughout, in which the class 
should be drilled till every thing is easy and familiar. In this way a class of or- 
dinary capacity, even of very young pupils, may be carried through to § 39 in the 
Bpace of four or five weeks ; and of those more advanced, in two or three. 

5. The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured 
by repeated revisals. It takes up but a few minutes, and is attended with very 
great advantage to begin every new lesson, or every other one with a rapid re- 
view of the whole from the beginning, or from such part as the teacher may 
direct. 

6. Having in this way advanced to § 39, the pupil is prepared to commence 
Etymological parsing, for which directions are given in that Section. It is ne- 
cessary he should be expert in this exercise before he enter on Syntax. To aid 
in this, ample directions and exercises are furnished from p. 75 to p. 85. 

7. In the study of Syntax, the same course in genera! should be pursued as in 
the preceding part. At first, the rule at the top of the page only should be com- 
mitted to memory, and then rendered familiar by the exercises under it. The 
subordinate rules and observations, with the exercises belonging to them, will 
be studied with more ease and advantage on a subsequent revisal. When this 
has been done, he will be prepared for exercises in Syntactical Parsing and Pro- 
miscuous Exercises in Syntax, of which a great variety is furnished in § 85. 

8. At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, 
it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course ; and to take up 
in his progress the parts formerly omitted, which, from the acquirements now 
made, will be better appreciated and more easily mastered; and in doing this 
also, repeated revisals should not be neglected. 

The study of English Grammar, prorecutedin this way, will prove both pleas- 
ing and profitable. The pupil, knowing what he is doing, and elated with success, 
will proceed with activity and cheerfulness; and in a comparatively short tim«* 
will finu himself a good grammarian. 



INDEX 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PARTI. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

OfLetters, ........ 

OfSyllables, 

Rules for spelling words, 

PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 
Words, and their division into Parts of Speech, . 

I. Article, of, ' • • 

Syntax of, 

II. Nouns, different kinds of, person of, • . 

Gender of, . . . . . 

Observations on, . 
Number, rules for plural, 

Nouns irregular in the plural, 
Observations on, . . • 

Cases, 

Nominative, construction of, 
Possessive, how formed ; observations 

Construction of, 
Objective, governed by active verbs, 
by neuter verbs, 
by prepositions, 
Declension of, ... 

Used for adjectives, and adjectives for nouns 
Construction of, in apposition, 

III. Adjectives, definition and comparison of, Obs. on, . 

Compared irregularly, 

Construction of, .... 

of comparative & superlative. 



Page. 

. 2 

2 

. 2 



6, 7 

8 

. 127 

9 

. 9 

11 

. 12 

13 

. 14 

16 

87, 88 

on, 17 

104, 105 

90 

. 90 

92 

. 16 

20 

. 102 

18, 19 

. 20 

97, 117 

114, 115 



CONTENTS. 





Page. 


IV. Pronouns, definition and division of, 


21 


Personal, declension of, and observations on, 


. 22 


Construction of, ... 


99 


Relative, how declined and applied, 


. 23 


Construction of, ... 


. 100 


Interrogative, how applied, .... 


. 25 


Adjective, division of, ... . 


25 


Possessive, 


. 26 


Distributive, 


26 


Construction of, . 


. 97 


Demonstrative, . . . 


26 


Construction of, 


97, 98 


Indefinite, 


27 


V. Verbs, definition and division of, 


. 29 


Concord of, with its nominative, 


. 88, 89 


with two nouns, 


93, 94 


with nominatives of different persons, 95 


with a collective noun, 


. 96 


Transitive, definition of, . . . 


29 


Used in a sense allied to the passive, 


. 32 


Inflexion of, 


43 


Government of, 


. 90 


Passive, definition of, . 


33 


Inflexion of, 


. 52 


When followed by the objective, 


91 


Intransitive, definition and characteristic of, 


. 29 


Have no passive ; how made transitive, 


31 


When used actively, 


. 90 


Construction of, 


91 


Auxiliary, what ; observations on, . . 


. 33 


To be, inflexion of, . 


48 


Construction of, . 


89, 103 


Irregular, definition of; list of, 


60 


Defective, definition of; list of, 


. 65 


Impersonal, of, 


65 


Moods, definition of, 


. 35 


Uses of ; observations on, 


. 35, 36 



Indicative and subjunctive, construction of, 111 

Infinitive, character of, . • 37 

Construction of, . HO 

Tenses, definition, division, and uses of, 58 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Verbs continued. 

Tenses, Observations on j different forms of, 
Construction of, . . . • 
Number and person, 

Exercises on active, 47; to be, 51 ; passive, 
Participles, definition and uses of, 
Observations on, 

VI. Adverbs, definition and use of, 

Classes of: observations on, . 

Position and construction of, . .116, 

VII. Prepositions, definition and use of, list of, 

Observations and exercises on 
Construction of, . • • 92, 

VIII. Conjunctions, uses of, list of, 

Observations on, . 
Construction of, 

IX. Interjections, use of, list of, obs.on, . 

Construction of, 
Parsing, etymological, definition of, 
Specimens of, . 
Rules for, and exercises in, 
Syntactical method of, 
Specimen of, 

PART III. SYNTAX. 
Syntax, general principles of, parts of, 

Rules of, 

Miscellaneous obs. on certain phrases, 

Improper expressions, a list of, • 

Punctuation, rules for, &c. .... 

Abbreviations, 

Paragraphs and capitals, 

Rhetorical divisions of a discourse, . • 
Different kinds of composition, . . . 

PART IV. PROSODY. 

Prosody, division of, ; 163 

Elocution, 163 

Versification, 168 

Figures of speech, . 175 

Poetic license, 176 

Hints for correct and elegant writing, ISO 

Composition, 183. Appendix, ...... 189 



from 



Page. 

. 39 

. 123 

. 42 

56 
. 57 

57 
. 66 

67 
117, 118 

69 

. 70 

119, 120 

. 70 

70 
.112 

71 
. 119 

71 

73 

75 
. 131 

133 

86, 87 

88 to 130 

. 145 

149 

. 151 

. 157 

. 158 

. 159 

. 160 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



ORDER OF THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

Rule I. A verb must agree with its nominative, 

Special rules under Rule i, 
II. A trans, verb governs the objective case, 

Special rules under Rule n. . 
Prepositions govern the objective case, . 
Two or more nouns sing, in connexion, 
■ taken separately, 



HI. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 
XVI. 
XVII. 
XVIII. 

XIX. 
XX. 



Page* 

. 88 
89 

. 90 
91 

. 92 
93 

. 94 
95 
96 
97 



A verb with nominatives of different persons, 
A verb with a collective noun, 
Adjectives of number, the pron. this and that, 
When two persons or things are contrasted, &c. 98 
Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c. . . 99 
The relative agrees with its antecedent, . .100 
Special rules and observations under Rule xi. 101 
Substantives signifying the same thing, &c. . 102 
A verb may have the same case after it as before, 103 

The possessive case, 104 

"When the present participle is used as a noun, 107 
The present participle with an article before it, 105 
The perfect participle is used after have and be, 109 
One verb governs another in the infinitive, 110 

The subjunctive mood, Ill 

Conjunctions couple the same moods and 

tenses, &c. . . . . . .112 

XXL Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunct. 113 

XXII. Comparative degree and the pronoun other, 114 

XXIII. Double comparatives and superlatives, . 115 

XXIV. Adverbs modify verbs, &c. .116 

XXV. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 1 17 

XXVI. Two negatives in the same sentence, . .118 

XXVII. Prepositions before names of places, . . 119 

XXVIII. Certain words and phrases must be followed, &c. 120 

XXIX. In the use of verbs, &c. ; the order of time, &c. 123 

XXX. When a member of a sentence refers to two 

different clauses, it should be, &c. . .125 

XXXI. Case absolute, ...... 126 

XXXII. The article A, &c 127 

XXXIH. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c. . . -129 
XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c. • . 130 

Miscellaneous observations, . . .145 



GRAMMAR. 



Grammar is both a Science and an Art. 

As a Science, it investigates the principles of language 
in general. When thus used, it is denominated General 
or Universal Grammar ; and sometimes Comparative 
Grammar. 

As an Art, it teaches the right method of applying these 
principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express 
our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to 
established usage 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English Language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely. Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

PART FIRST. 
§ 1. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of Let- 
ters, and the correct method of spelling words. 

A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the hu- 
man voice. 

2 A 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2* 

There are Twenty-six Letters in English. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple sound. The Vowels 
are, a, e, i, o, u; and w and y, when they do not begin a syllable. 

A Consonant is a letter that cannot be sounded without the help of 
a vowel. The Consonants are, 6, c, d,f,g, h,j, k, l 9 m, n, p, q, r, s, t, 
v, x, z ; and iv and y, when they begin a syllable. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound ; as, ou in out. 

A proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; 
as, oy in boy, ou in round, or oi in oil. 

An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is 
sounded ; as, ca in boat. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound ; as, eau'm 
beauty. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, as, far ; or so much of it as can be sounded at 
once, as, far in farmer. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, fox, dog. 

A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as, farmer • 

A Trissyllable is a word of three syllables ; as, butterfly. 

A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

L Words have as many syllables as they contain distinct sounds, 
and must be divided as the sounds are heard in correct pronuncia- 
tion ; as, re-pub-li-can, de-light, ex-am-ine, abstain. 

2. Grammatical and other particular terminations are generally se- 
parated ; as, teach- est, teach-ing, teach- er. 

§ 2. SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters, and rightly dividing it into syllables 

RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with /, Z, or s, preceded by a 



§ 2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 

single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, 
pass. 

Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, 
us, thus, pus. 

RULE II. 

Words ending with any consonant except f, I, or s, 
do not double the final letter. 

Exceptions. Add, bunn, butt, buzz ; ebb, egg, err ; 
inn, odd, purr. 

RULE III. 

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i before an additional letter or syllable ; as, spy, spies ; 
happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, 
fanciful. 

Exception. But y is not changed before ing ; as deny, 
denying. 

Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y 
unchanged ; as, boy, hoys, boyish, boyhood. 

Exceptions. Lay, pay, say, make, laid, paid, said. 

rule IV. 

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a vowel, dou- 
ble that consonant before an additional syllable beginning 
with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, admittance, ad- 
mitted. Except x and h, which are never doubled. 

But when a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on 
theJast syllable, the consonant is not doubled ; as, boil, 
boiling, boiler ; I visit, I visited. Except travel, traveller, 
and a few others which usage has sanctioned. 

rule v. 
Words ending with II generally drop one I before the 
terminations ness, less, ly and ful ; as, fulness, shitless, 
fully, skilful. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2. 

But words ending in any other double letter, preserve 
the letter double before these terminations ; as, harmless- 
ness, stiffly, &c. 

RULE VI, 

Silent e is preserved before the terminations, merit, less, 
ly, and ful ; as, paleness, peaceful, abatement, &e. 

Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, judgment, abridg- 
ment, acknowledgment, lodgment, argument, are excepted. 

RULE VII. 

Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a 
vowel ; as slave, slavish ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible ; 
lodge, lodging. 

Exceptions. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their 
compounds before able, retain e ; as, blameable, moveable, 
<&c. 

Yf ords ending in ge and ce retain e before able in order 
to preserve the soft sound of g and c ; as changeable, 
peaceable. For the same reason we have singeing and 
swingeing. 

Note. The letters it at the end of a word, are changed into y be 
fore ing ; as, die, dying. 

RULE VIII. 

Simple words ending in 11, generally drop one Z when 
joined to other words ; as, full, handful ; all, also ; tell, 
foretel. But other compounded words are generally 
spelled in the same manner as the simple words of which 
they are formed ; as, glasshouse, thereby. 

EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 

RULE I. 

Correct the following words : — mil, fil, hil, tal, las, staf, hass, thuss, 
thiss, mis, tos, bul, gras. 

RULE II. 

Correct the following words : — mapp, ruram, runn, ratt, hatt, bagg, 
od, buz. 



§ 2» ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

RULE HI. 

Add es to the following nouns : — fly, cry, beauty, glory, bounty, 
frailty, duty, copy. 

Add es, eth or est, to the followhig verbs : — deny, decry, defy, tarry, 
spy, try, fly, glory, imply, supply. 

Add ing to the same. 

Compare the following adjectives by adding er and est : — ugly, has- 
ty, portly, happy, comely, lazy, holy. 

Correct the following iu or ds : — eomelyness, uglyness, hastyness, 
beautyful, dutyful, portraid, dismaied, plaiful. 

Write the plural of the following words by adding s : — day, play, 
ray, valley, toy, joy, bay. 

RULE IV. 

Add ing or ed to the following verbs : — scan, blot, drag, brag, flog, 
fan, slip, split, drum ; admit, compel, concur, distil, extol, permit, an- 
nul, commit ; suffer, counsel, cover, parcel, cudgel, libel, travel ; toil, 
boil, soil, coin. 

T^ RULE V. 

Add ness, less, or ly, to the following words : — stiff, careless, 
thoughtless, dull, skill, full, harmless. 
Add ful to the following words : — distress, success, will, skill. 

RULE VI. 

Correct the following words : — sedatness, lovly, entirly, securly, 
wastful, hoarsness, aweful, truely, sincerly, ceasless ; abridgement, 
arrangment, allurment, abatment, judgement. 

RULE VII. 

Correct the following words : — striveing, thriveing, droneish, dis- 
pensing, lodgeing, desireable, excuseable, reverseible, forceible, 
chargable, servicable, changable, senseible, clotheing, shineing, lodge- 
ing,ruleing,valueable. 

RULE VIII. 

Correct the following words : — allso, dunghill, fullfilling, allways, 
hurtfull, wellcome. 



2* 



PART SECOND. 
§ 3. ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de 
rivations. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by 
common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are 
either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Com- 
pound. 

A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other word 
m the language ; as, boy, just, father* 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word ; as, 
boyish, justice, fatherly. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other word j 
as, man, house, city. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple 
words ; as, manhood, horseman. 

2. Words, in respect of Form, are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of form 
or termination, to express the different relations of gender, number, 
case, person, &c. usually termed in Grammar Accidents ; as, man, 
men ; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form ; 
as, good, some, perhaps. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are 
divided into different classes, called 



3. ETYMOLOGY 7 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech in the English language are 
nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection and Con- 
junction. 

Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are de- 
clined, the rest are indeclinable. 

QUESTIONS* 

What is English Grammar? Into huia many parts is it divided? 
Mention them. What is Orthography ? What is a letter? How 
many letters are there in English,? How are they divided ? What 
is a vowel ? — a consonant ? Name the vowels. When are w and y 
vowels? When consonants? What is a diphthong? — a proper 
diphthong? — an improper diphthong? — a triphthong? What is a 
Syllable ? What is a xcord of one Syllable termed ? — of two ? — of 
three ?— of four or more ? 

(§ 2.) What is spelling ? Repeat the rules. 

(§3.) What does Etymology treat of? What are words ? How 
may words be classed in respect of their Formation ? What is a pri- 
mitive word?— a derivative word? — a simple word? — a compound 
word ? Hoiv may words be classed in respect of Form ? What is a 
declinable word? — an indeclinable word? How many parts op 
speech are there in English ? Name them. Which of these are de- 
clinable ? Which are indeclinable ? 



* The list of questions subjoined at intervals is not intended for the use, much 
less for the direction, of the teacher, who, if competent, will always put such 
questions to the pupil as will enable him to ascertain whether he understands 
what he has studied, or to draw his attention to any particular point which he 
may wish to illustrate at greater length. The principal design of their insertion 
is to exercise the judgment of the pupil in his private studies in finding appro- 
priate answers, — to enable him the better to prepare his lessons by suggesting 
such questions as are likely to be asked, — and to furnish a test whether he is 
sufficiently prepared for recitation, which he cannot be unless he can furnish a 
correct and prompt answer to the questions proposed. They may also prove use- 
ful in schools conducted on the monitorial plan as a guide to the Monitor. That 
the correct answer may be more readily found, the sections (§) to which the 
questions refer are marked ; those which refer to the text or large print, are 
printed in Italics ; and those which refer to the notes and observations, in the 
ordinary Roman letter. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 4. 

§ 4. I. OF THE ARTICLES. 

An ARTICLE is a word put before a noun, to show 
the extent of its meaning ; as, a man, the man. 

There are two Articles, A or AN, and THE. 

A or AN is called the Indefinite Article, because 
it does not point out a particular person or thing ; 
as, A king ; that is, any king. 

THE is called the Definite Article, because it re- 
fers to a particular person or thing; as, The king ; 
i. e. some particular king. 

A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in 
its widest sense ; as, Man is mortal, i. e. All man- 
kind : — Or in an indefinite sense ; as, There are 
men destitute of all shame, i. e. some men. § 81. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before a Consonant ; as, a book. 
An is used before a Yowel or silent h ; as, an age 
an hour. But 

A and not An is used before u long, and the diphthong eu, because 
these letters have, combined with their sound, the power of initial y ; 
thus, a unit, a use, a eulogy. On the other hand, An is used before 
words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second 
syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical account ; because the h in 
such words is but slightly sounded. 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES. 

Prefix the Indefinite article to the words, river, hope, 
army, hermit, infant, uncle, humour, usurper, hostler, wish, 
youth, umbrage, oyster, herb, thought, honour, elephant, 
husband. 

Correct what follows, and give a reason for the change. 
A inkstand, an handful, a article, a humble man, an ewe, 
a anchor, an useful book, an history, an humorous tale, an 
hedge, an union. 



§5,6. ETYMOLOGY. 9 

§5. OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of a thing ; as, John, London, 
book. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indivi- 
dual only ; as Albany ', Washington , the Hudson. 

A Common Noun is a name applied to all things 
of the same sort ; as, man, chair ', table, book. 

Remark. — Proper nouns distinguish, individuals of the same 
class from, each other, — Common nouns distinguish sorts or classes, 
and are equally applicable to all things of the same class. 

Obs. 1. Proper nouns denoting persons usually become common 
by having an article prefixed; as, u He is the Cicero of his age." 

Obs. 2. Common nouns become Proper when personified, and 
also when used as proper names; as, Hail Liberty f The Park. 

Obs. 3. Under Common nouns are usually ranked, 

1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many 
in the singular number; as, army, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities; as, piety, wickedness. 

3d. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions, or states of being ; 
as, reading, writing, sleeping. § 30, 7. 

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and 
Cass. 

§ 6. OF PERSON. 

Person, in grammar, is the relation of a noun or 
pronoun to what is said in discourse. There are 
three persons, the first, second, and third. 

The First person denotes the speaker or writer ; 
as, " I Paul have written it." 

The Second denotes the person addressed ; as, 
u Thou God seest me." 

The Third denotes the person or thing spoken of; 
as, " Truth is mighty." See Appendix, III. 2. 1st. 



10 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SI' 



§ 7, OF GENDER. 
Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
Sex. There are three genders, the Masculine, Femi- 
nine and JYeuter. App. III. 2. 2d. 

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex ; as ? 
Ji man, a hoy. 

The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex y 
as, A woman, a girl. 

The JYeuter Gender denotes whatever is without 
Milk. 



sex : as 



There are three ways of distinguishing the sex. 
1. By different words ; as 5 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boy 


girl 


King- 


queen 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughtei 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


Hart 


roe 


Wizzard 


witch 


2. By 


a difference of Termination ; as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Actor 


actress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Count 


countess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Duke 


dutchess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Elector 


electress 


Author (often) 


authoress 


Emperor 


empress 


Baron 


baroness 


Enchanter 


enchantress 



5 7. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


1 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. ' 


Female. 


Executor 


executrix 


Prince 


princess 


Governor 


governess 


Prior 


prioress 


Heir 


heiress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Hero 


heroine 


Protector 


protectress 


Hunter 


huntress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Host 


hostess 


Songster 


songstress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Sultan 


C sultana, or sul 


Lion 


lioness 




I taness 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Tiger 


tigress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Peer 


peeress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Poet 


poetess 


Votary 


votaress 


Priest 


priestess 


Widower 


widow 



3. By prefixing another word ; as, 

A cock sparrow. A hen sparrow 

A he goat. A she goat. 

A man servant. A maid servant 

A male child. A female child. 

Male descendants. Female descendants. 



OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such as, parent, 
child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be 
of the common gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter are converted by a figure of speech 
into the masculine or feminine; as when we say of the sun, He is set- 
ting; — of the moon, She is eclipsed ; and of a ship, She sails. 

3. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or not re- 
garded, we assign the masculine gender to those distinguished for 
boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, &c, as the dog, the horse, 
the elephant. Thus we say, " The dog is remarkably various in his spe- 
cies." On the other hand, we assign the feminine gender to animals 
characterized by weakness and timidity ; as, the hare, the cat, &c, 
thus, " The cat, as she beholds the light, draws the ball of her eye 
small and long." 

4. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size wefre- 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. §8, 

quently consider them devoid of sex. Thus, of an infant, we say " It 
is a lovely creature;" — of a cat, "12 is cruel to its enemy." 

5. When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms ; as, 
shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, 
expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the 
office, occupation, profession, &c, and not the sex of the individual, is 
chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when thedis 
crimination of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 
" the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste," 
the term "Poet" clearly includes both male and female writers of 
poetry. 

§ 8. OF NUMBER. 

Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have tioo 
numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Sin- 
gular denotes one ; the Plural more than one. 

GENERAL RULE. 
The plural is commonly formed by adding .9 to the 
singular, as book, hooks. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, x, or 0, form the plural 
by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses; brush, brushes ; 
match, matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo and io, with junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico, 
solo,halo,quarto, have s only ; as, cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; junto, 
juntos, &c. Also nouns in ch sounding k ; as, monarch, monarchs. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into ie,s 
in the plural ; as, lady, ladies. 

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule ; 
as day, days. § 2. R. III. 

3. Nouns inforfe, change / or fe into ves in the 
plural ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives, 

Exc. Dwarf, scarf, wharf; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 



§ 9. ETYMOLOGY 13 

mischief ; gulf, tuif, surf; — fife, strife ; — proof, hoof, roof, reproof, follow 
the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in 5; as, muff, 
muffs ; except staff, which has sometimes staves; so wharf, wharves. 

EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 

Give the 'plural, and the rule for forming it, of — Fox, book, 
leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, inch, 
sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, 
church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, 
peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, 
city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, 
enemy ; an army, a vale, an ant, a valley, the hill, the sea, 
a key, a toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, em- 
bryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cufT, 
ruff. 

Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
hills, river, scenes, stars, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, 
glass, state, foxes, house, prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, 
churches, glove, silk, skies, berries, peach ? 

§ 9. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

Some noun3 are irregular in the formation of their plural ; such as, 



Singular. 


Plural 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 


teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Foot 


feet 


Louse 


lice 


Ox 


oxen 


Penny 


pence 



But penny, meaning the coin, has the plural pennies. 

Note. Words compounded of man, woman, &c. form the plural 
like the simple word; as Footman, footmen; Boatman, boatmen; 
Washerwoman, washerwomen, &c. 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother (one of the same family) brothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 
3 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§10. 



Sow or swine 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Aid-de-camp 
Court-martial 
Cousin-german 
Father-in-law, &e. 



sows or swine 

dice 

dies 

aids-de-camp 

courts-martial 

cousins-german 

fathers-in-law, &c. 



Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their original plu- 
ral. Asa general rule, nouns in urn or on have a in the plural ; but 
those in is in the singular, change it into es in the plural. The fol- 
lowing are the most common : 



Animalculum 
Antithesis 


animal cula 

antitheses- 


Genius (an aerial 1 

■ • v > genu 
spirit) ) & 


Apex 


apices 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Appendix 


( appendixes 
( appendices 


Ignis fatuus ignes fatui 
Index (a pointer) indexes 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Index (in algebra) indices 


Automaton 


automata 


Lamina 


laminae 


Axis 


axes 


Magus 


magi 


Basis 


bases 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


Calx 


calces 


Metamorphosis metamorphoses 


Cherub 


( cherubim 
( cherubs 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Crisis 


crises 


Radius 


radii 


Criterion 


criteria 


Stamen 


stamina 


Datum 


data 


Seraph 


i seraphs 
( seraphim 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Stratum 


strata 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Vertex 


vertices 


Encomium 


5 encomia 
f encomiums 


Vortex 


vortices 




Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Erratum 


errata 


Mr (master) 


Messrs (mes- 


Focus 


foci 




sieurs) 


Genus 


genera 







§ 10. OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 



1. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race or 
family ; as, the Stewarts, the Campbells; or to several persons of the 



§ 10, ETYMOLOGY, 15 

same name ; as, the twelve Caesars, the two Mr. Bells, the two Miss 
Browns, But without the numeral, or in addressing letters in which 
both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are dif- 
ferent, we pluralize the title (Mr. or Miss) j as, Misses Brown, Messrs. 
Webster & Skinner. See § 60, Rem. 1. 

2. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed or 
measured, are for the most part confined to the singular number; as 
gold, meekness, temperance, bread, beer, beef, &c. Except when dif- 
ferent sorts are meant ; as, wines, teas, fee. 

3. Some nouns are used in the plura, only; such as annals, anti- 
podes, literati, credenda, minutice, banditti, uata ; and things consisting 
of two parts, as bellows, scissors, pliers, tongs, lungs, &c. ; or of more 
than two, as ashes, embers, entrails, clothes, &c. 

Note. For the singular of literati, the expression, " one of the literati, 1 ' 
is used ; and bandit is sometimes used as the singular of banditti, 

4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as hose, deer, sheep, swine, 
trout, salmon, tench; apparatus, hiatus, series, species; brace, dozen, 
head, couple, score, pair, hundred, thousand, &c 

Note. Brace, dozen, &c. have sometimes a plural form ; as, He 
bought partridges in braces, and books in scores and dozens. Cannon, 
shot, and sail, are used in a plural sense. Foot, horse, infantry, and 
sometimes cavalry, meaning bodies of foot, &c. are construed with a 
plural verb. The singular of sheep, deer, &c. is distinguished by 
the article a ; as, a sheep, a deer, 

5. Some words are plural in form, but in construction either singu- 
lar or plural; such as amends, means, news, riches, pains; and the 
names of certain sciences, as mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, 
optics, &c. 

Note. Means, when it points out the instrumentality of one agent, 
is construed as singular ; — of more than one, as plural. Mean, in the 
singular form, is commonly used to signify a middle between two ex- 
tremes. News is now generally construed in the singular number. 
Alms (almesse, Fr.) is properly singular, though ending in s, and is 
perhaps always so used. Riches (richesse, Fr.) of similar derivation, 
is singular or plural. Thanks is considered a plural noun, though 
used to denote one expression of gratitude. Thank occurs in the New 
Testament : "What thank have ye?" 

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR NOUNS AND OBSERVATIONS, &C. 

Give the 'plural of — Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, chiK 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §11. 

father-in-law, son-in-law, brother ; erratum, radius, lamina, 
automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamen, 
index, cherub, seraph. 

Of what number is— Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, 
dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, 
woman, child, court-martial, apparatus, minutiae, genii, 
geniuses, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, James, 
John? 

§11. OF THE CASES OF NOUNS. 

Case is the state or condition of a noun with re- 
spect to the other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative^ 
Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative case expresses that of which 
something is said or declared ; as, the sun shines. 

The Possessive denotes that to which something 
belongs ; as, the lady's fan. 

The Objective denotes the object of some action 
or relation ; as, James assists Thomas ; they live in 
Albany. 

The nominative and objective are alike. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is form- 
ed by adding an apostrophe only. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED : 

Plural. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Norn. 


Lady 


Ladies 


John 


Poss, 


Lady's 


Ladies' 


John's 


Obj. 


Lady 


Ladies 


John 



Proper names generally want the plural. See § 10, 1. 



§ 12. ETYMOLOGY. 17 

§ 12. OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE 

1. The apostrophe and 5 ('s) is an abbreviation for is, the termina- 
tion of the old English genitive ; thus, " the king's crown," was an- 
ciently written, "the kingis crown." 

2. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of similar 
sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds; as, "for goodness' 
sake ;" " for conscience' sake." This, however, is seldom if ever done 
unless the word following the possessive begins with s ; thus we do 
not say, "the prince' feather,'' but, "the prince's feather." 

3. The relation expressed by the possessive case, is in general the 
same with that expressed by the word of; thus, " the rage of the ty- 
rant," " the death of the prince," are equivalent to " the tyrant's rage," 
" the prince's death." Hence when the use of the possessive would 
appear stiff, it is better to use the preposition of or some equivalent 
expression instead of it ; as, " the satellites of Jupiter," " the length of 
the day," "the garden wall," for "Jupiter's satellites," "the day's 
length," "the garden's wall." Sometimes, however, the idea ex- 
pressed by the preposition of with the objective, is different from that 
expressed by the possessive ; thus, " a picture of the king," and "ttv- 
king's picture," express different ideas : the first means " a portrait of 
the king j " the last, " a picture belonging to the king." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun or substantive ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a proper norm ? — a common noun ? How do proper nouns be- 
come common ? What are collective nouns ? — abstract nouns ? — di- 
minutive nouns ? How are nouns varied 1 

(§6.) What is gender ? How many genders are there? What does 
the masculine gender denote '—the feminine ? — the neuter ? Mention the 
different ways of distinguishing the sex. 

(§ 7.) What is the common gender? How do neuter nouns become 
masculine or feminine? Give an instance. When the sex of animals 
is not known, what gender do we assign to those distinguished for 
boldness, fidelity, strength, &c. ? — to those characterized by weakness, 
timidity, and the like? — to animals of inferior size? 

(§ 8.) What is meant by number ? How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote ?• — the plural ? How is the plural com- 
monly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es ? How do nouns 
iny after a consonant, form the plural ? — after a vote el 1 — nouns in for 
fe? 

3* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 18. 

(§9.) Mention some nouns that are irregular in the formation of the 
plural. How do words from foreign languages, in um, commonly form 
the plural ? — in on ? — in is ? 

(§ 10.) When have proper names the plural? What sort of nouns 
are for the most part used in the singular ? Mention some nouns used 
in the plural only ; — some alike in both numbers. Mention some nouns 
plural in form, but singular or plural in construction. When is means 
construed with a singular verb ? — when with a plural verb ? 

(§ 11.) What is case? How many cases have nouns? name them. 
What does the nominative denote ? — the possessive ? — the objective ? 
Which two cases are alike ? How is the possessive singidar usually 
formed ? — the possessive plural ? Decline lady, John, &c. 

(§ 12.) For what is 's an abbreviation? When does the possessive 
singular omit the s after the apostrophe ? What form of expression is 
equivalent to the possessive ? 

EXERCISES ON GENDER, NUMBER AND CASE.* 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, 
hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, 
echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, 
grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, Robert's 
shoe, horse, bridle. 

§ 13. III. OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press its quality, or to limit its signification ; as, a 
good boy ; a square box ; ten dollars. 

2. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; 
namely, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative, 

The Positive expresses a quality simply: the Comparative asserts 

* Note. In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which is very im- 
portant in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all that is necessary in 
parsing these or other words, thus : Father, a noun, masculine, singular, the 
nominative ; Mother's, a noun, feminine, singular, the possessive. It will also be 
a profitable exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of his description, 
thus: Father, a noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it de- 
notes the male sex; singular, because it denotes but one ; plural, fathers— Rule. 
" The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular," 



§ 13. ETYMOLOGY. 19 

it in a higher or i one object than in another : And the 

Sup: e compared with s: 

thus, Gold .sthenics*. : the metals. 

3. In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative 
is formed by adding 1 -er to the positive ; and the Su- 
perlative by adding -est ; as. s\:ee1. s sweetest. 
Adjectives of more than one syllable are compared 
by prefixing more and most to the positive : as. nu- 
\ more n 

OBSERVATI : 

1. I U after a by er 

[ : U be- 

fore crane- happier, happiest. Bull with ; . : 

iged : . Rule in. 

-2. - . tives form the superlative by adc be end 

st. 

3. ^~" lositive ends in a sin ■ . :■ t-Eded by a 

?onant is doubled before, era 
lofteat : 2, Ruleir. 

4. Some adjectives do not admit 

1. Such as dene ; as, one. two ; — :"::' 

2. figure or sk 

3. posture or position; as, perpendicular, koriz: 

4iTbosec re signification : as, true, perfect, 

universe... Sec. 

5. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, int: ;•.'; \ fee. though 
they involve the idea of comparison, are not to be considered as in the 

irative degree, any more than such adjective? as 

_-? have the form of the comparative, nor 
icy construe* van after them, as comparatives in English 

ire. See Syntax, \ 71. Role xxn. 

6. The superlative deg: t^ romparison. is usually preceded 

ecededbytheindefinitearticle.it loea 
not imply comparison, but i as, "he is a most dieting 

man." The same thing is expressed by prefixing tiie adverb very, ex~ 
ceed ingly, and the like ; which is called the sup i nee. 

7. Without implying comparison, the signification of the positive is 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§14. 



sometimes lessened by the termination ish ; as, white, whitish ; black, 
blackish. These may properly be called diminutive adjectives. The 
adverb rather, expresses a small degree of the quality j as, rather 
little. 

8. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express the 
quality of other nouns ; as, gold ring, silver cup, sea water. 

9. On the contrary, adjectives are often used as nouns ; as, "God 
rewards the good, and punishes the bad. 11 " The virtuous are the 
most happy." Adjectives thus used are usually preceded by the de- 
finite article ; and when applied to persons, are considered plural.. 
§ 40, Rule vii. 

10. Adjectives which express number, are called Numeral adjec' 
tives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. The cardinal 
answer the question, "how many ?' ; and are one, two, three, four, jive, 
six, &c. The ordinal answer the question, "which of the number? 19 
They are first, second, third, fourth, &c. 



§14 


. Adjectives C 


/OMPARE 


d Irregularly. 


Positive. 




Compa' 


'ative. 


Superlative. 


Good 




better 




best 


Bad, evil 


or ill 


worse 




worst 


Little 




less 




least 


Much or 


many 


more 




most 


Late 




later 




latest or last 


Near 




nearer 




nearest or next 


Far 




farther 




farthest 


Fore 




former 




foremost or first 


Old 




older or 


elder 


oldest or eldest 



Obs. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 
those that are numbered. Elder and eldest, to persons only ; older and 
oldest, either to persons or things. 

QUESTIONS. 

(§ 13 & 14.) What is an adjective ? How many degrees of compart' 
son are there ? — name them. What does the positive express ? — the 
comparative ?— the superlative ? How are adjectives of one syllable 
compared ? — of more than one ? 

(Obs.) How are dissyllables in le, after a mute, compared ? — dis 



§ 15 ETYMOLOGY. 21 

syllables in y ? What superlatives are formed by adding most to the 
end of the word ? What words double the final consonant before er 
and est ? What adjectives do not admit of comparison ? Of what 
degree are superior, inferior, interior, &c. ? What does the superla- 
tive imply when preceded by the definite article? — by the indefinite? 
What is the force of the termination ish ? What are adjectives in ish 
called ? When are nouns used as adjectives ? Are adjectives ever 
used as nouns? — give an example. Of what number are they 
when applied to persons ? W r hat are numeral adjectives ? Name 
the cardinal ; — the ordinal. What do the cardinal express? — the or- 
dinal? What adjectives are compared irregularly ? What is much 
applied to? many ? — elder and eldest ? — older and oldest ? 

EXERCISES. 

Ofivhat degree of comparison is— Sweet, kinder, warm- 
est, prompt, firmest, bright, high, cold, nobler, broader, 
bravest, more pleasant, most desirable, softer. 

Compare — Great, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble* 
gay, good, little, much, worthless, ambitious, old, young. 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE, NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 

A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the benevo. 
lent lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older com- 
panion ; man's chief concern ; a lady's lapdog ; most 
splendid talents ; the liveliest disposition ; a pleasant tem- 
per ; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent 
shades ; excellent weather ; a loftier tower ; a happier dis- 
position. 

§ 15. IV. OF THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies. 

Pronouns may be divided into three classes ; Per- 
sonal, Relative, and Adjective. The personal pro- 
nouns are, 1, thou^ he, she, it. They are thus de- 
clined : 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 15 







SINGULAR. 






PLURAL 


* 






Nam. Poss.* 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss.* 


Obj, 


L 


m. or f. 


I mine 


me 


We 


ours 


us 


2. 


m. orf. 


Thou thine 


thee 


You 


yours 


you 


3. 


masc. 


He his 


him 


They 


theirs 


them 


3. 


fern. 


She hers 


her 


They 


theirs 


them 


3. 


neut. 


It its 


it 


They 


theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. lis the first person, and denotes the speaker 
Thou is the second, and denotes the person spoken 
to. He, she, and it, are of the third person, and 
denote the person or thing spoken of. So also of 
their plurals, we, you, (ye), they. 

2. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with 
their plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, may 
be called Compound personal pronouns : They are 
used in the nominative and objective cases. In the 
nominative they are emphatic, and are added to 
their respective personal pronouns, or are used in- 
stead of them; as, " I myself did it ;" Ci himself shall 
come." In the objective they are reflexive, showing 
that the agent is also the object of his own act ; as> 
" Judas went and hanged himself" 

3. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, we »a 
frequently applied to one person. 

4. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the singular 
and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is used onty in ad- 
dresses to the Deity, or any important object in nature ; or to mark 
special emphasis, or, in the language of contempt. The plural form 
ye is now but seldom used. 

5. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the third 
person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the third person 

* See $ 18, 1. Obs. 1. 



§ 16. ETYMOLOGY. 23 

singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as, It is I, it is we, 
it is you, it is they ; — It was she, &c. 

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written her's, iVs, 
our's, your 1 s 9 their 1 s ; for the final s is not used on account of the go- 
vernment of the noun understood, but because the noun is omitted. 
We cannot say her's book, but her book, or, that book is hers. 

7. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus ; J, the first 
personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nomina- 
tive. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the pos- 
sessive, &c. 

QUESTIONS. 

§ 15. What is a pronoun ? Name the classes into which they are di- 
vided. Name the personal pronouns. Decline them. Of tohat person 
is I? — thou? — he, she, it ? What does the first person denote ? — the se- 
cond? — the third? To what class do myself, thyself, fyc. belong? In 
what cases are they used ? How are they applied in the nominative ?- 
in the objective ? How is you applied ? — thou ? — it ? 

EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, 
them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, 
them, us, we. 

§ 16. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates to 
a noun or pronoun before it, called the antecedent ; 
as, the master who taught us. 

2. The relative pronouns are who, which, and that. 
They are alike in both numbers ; and that is alike 
in all cases. They are thus declined. 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 
Norn. Who, Which. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Obj. WTiom, Which. 

3. Who is applied to persons ; as ; the boy who 
reads. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 16 

Obs. Also to inferior animals, and things without life, when they are 
represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

4. Which is applied to inferior animals and things 
without life ; as, the dog which barks ; the book 
lohich was lost. 

Note. Also to collective nouns composed of persons ; as, " the court 
of Spain which;" "the company which: 5 ' And likewise after the 
name of a person used merely as a word ; as, " The court of dueen 
Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as well as things, and is so 
used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

5. That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of who or ivhich. It is applied 
both to persons and things. § 58, Rem. 3. 

6. What is a compound relative, including both 
the relative and the antecedent ; as, this is what 1 
wanted, that is, the thing which I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Which has for its possessive ivhose ; as, A religion whose origin 
is divine. Instead of ivhose, however, the objective with of before it, 
is more commonly used; as, A religion, the origin of which is divine. 

2. What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; that is, they 
agree with a substantive following them ; as, " I know not by what 
fatality the adversaries of the measure are impelled ;" — " Which things 
are an allegory." In this sense, which applies either to persons or 
things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these. 

3. Whoever, whosoever, Whatever, and whatsoever are also used as 
compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a general or 
indefinite antecedent : as, " Whosoever committeth sin is the servant 
of sin ;" that is, " any one" or "every one loho committeth sin, &c." 
" Whatsoever things are of good report ;" i. e. " All things (without 
exception) which are of good report." § 59. Rule in. § 63, 8. 

4. Who, and also which, and what without a substantive following 
them, in responsive sentences, or in sentences similarly constructed, 
are properly neither relatives nor adjectives, but a kind of indefinite 
Dronouns. Thus, when to the question " Who is the author of that 
xsocm 1 " it is replied, " I do not know ivho is its author," the word 



§ 17, 18. ETYMOLOGY. 25 

"ioIio 1 " is evidently not a relative ; for if it were, then, with the antecedent 
supplied, the sentence would be "I do not know the person who is 
its author." These two sentences, however, are clearly not equiva- 
lent ; the former means " I do not know by what person it was writ- 
ten ; " the latter, " I have no knowledge of him, I am not acquainted 
with him." The first is a direct answer to the question, the last is no 
answer at all, but would be considered as an evasion. 

§ 17. OF THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

In asking questions, who, which, and what are 
called Interrogative pronouns. 

As interrogatives, who is applied to persons only ; 
which and what, either to persons or things. What 
admits of no variation. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In the use of the interrogatives as applied to persons, the follow- 
lowing distinction is to be observed ; namely, Who is used when we 
inquire after a person or persons wholly unknown ; as, Who did it ? — 
Which is used when we inquire after one or more of a number present, 
or already spoken of ; as, Which of them did it ? Do you know which 
of these men is the president? — What is used when the character, or 
a description of a person is inquired after, and not the name, or the 
individual merely ; as, What man is that ? 

2. When a defining clause is added, either what or which may be 
used ; as, What, or which man among you ? 

3. Whether (now used as a conjunction only) was formerly used as 
an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to, which of the two ? Its place 
is now supplied by which* 

4. In answers to questions made by these interrogatives, the same 
words are used as responsives ; as, Who did it? I know not who did 
it. Which of them did it ? I know not which of them did it. See § 16, 
Obs. 4. 

§ 18. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns, viz. 
the Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and 
Indefinite* 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § IB. 

1. The Possessive pronouns are such as relate to 
possession or property. They are, My, thy, his> 
her, our, your, their, its, own. 

Obs. 1. The possessive pronoun is in fact only another form of the 
possessive case of the personal pronoun, having the same meaning but 
a different construction. The possessive pronoun, like the adjective, 
is always followed by a substantive; as, this is my book. The pos- 
sessive case of the personal pronoun is never followed by a substan- 
tive, but refers to one previously expressed ; a3, this book is mine. 
The 'possessive case of the substantive is used both ways ; as, this 
book is John's ; or, this is John's book. 

Obs. 2. His and her, when followed by a substantive, are possessive 
pronouns : Not followed by a substantive, his is the possessive case of 
he; and her is the objective case of she. 

Obs. 3. Mine and thine were formerly used, before a vowel or the 
letter h, as possessives for my and thy ; as, "Blot out all mine iniqui- 
ties ; " "Commune with thine heart." 

Obs. 4. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is 
added to the other possessive pronouns, and to the possessive case of 
nouns, to render them emphatic ; as, My own book ; The boy's own 
book. The possessive pronoun with own following it, may stand alone, 
having its substantive understood ; as, It is my own. 

2. The distributive pronouns represent the per- 
sons or things that make up a number as taken se- 
parately. They are, Each, every, either, neither. 

Obs. 1. Each denotes two things taken separately ; or, every one 
o f any number taken singly. Every denotes more than two things 
taken individually, and comprehends them all. Either means one ot 
two, but not both. Neither means not either. 

3. The demonstrative pronouns point out with 
precision the object to which they relate. They 
are, This and that, with their plurals these and 
those. 

Obs. 1. Yon, and former and latter, maybe called demonstrative 
pronouns, as well as this and that. 

Obs. 2. That is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative, and 
sometimes a conjunction. 



§18. ETYMOLOGY. 27 

1. It is a relative, when it can be turned into who or which ; as, The 
days that (or ivhich) are past, are gone forever. 

2. It is a demonstrative, when it is placed before a noun, or refers to 
one at some distance from it ; as, That book is new ; that is what I 
want. 

3. It is a conjunction when it cannot be changed into who or which, 
but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end ; as, He was so 
proud, that he was universally despised : He answered, that he never 
was so happy as now ; Live well, that you may be happy. 

4. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are, None, any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are de- 
clined like nouns. 

Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such 
words as no, feio, many, several, and the like ; as 
well as the compounds, whoever, whatever, which- 
soever, &c, and who, which, and what, in responsive 
sentences. § 16. Obs. 4., 

None is used in both numbers, but it cannot be 
joined to a noun. 

Note. The distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites, cannot 
strictly be called pronouns ; since they never stand instead of nouns, 
but always agree with a noun expressed or understood : Neither can 
they be properly called adjectives, since they never express the quality 
of a noun. They are here classed with pronouns, in accordance with 
the usages of other languages, which generally assign them this place. 
All these, together with the possessives, in parsing, may with sufficient 
propriety be termed adjectives, being uniformly regarded as such in 
syntax. 

QUESTIONS. 

(§ 16 & 17.) What is a relative pronoun ? Name them. Decline 
who — which. Hoio is who applied ? — which ? — that ? — What does 
what, used as a relative, imply 1 

(Obs.) When are what and which used as adjectives ? How are 
whoever and whosoever applied ? How is who applied in asking ques- 
tions ? Hoio is which applied ? How was whether formerly used ? 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 18. 

Bow is it now used ? When are who, which, and what used as re 
sponsives ? 

(§ 18,) How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there? Name 
them. Mention the possessive pronouns. How is the possessive pro- 
noun distinguished from the possessive case of the personal pronoun] 
When are his and her possessive pronouns ? — when substantive or 
personal ? How are mine and thine used ? — own ? Mention the dis- 
tributive pronouns. How is each applied ? — every ? — either ? — neither ? 
Mention the demonstrative pronouns. What other words may be con. 
sidered as demonstratives? When is that a relative ? — a demonstra- 
tive? — a conjunction ? Mention the indefinite pronouns. Which of 
them are declined like nouns ? What other words may be considei 
ed as indefinites ? How is none used ? 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS, &c. 

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine, whose, 
they, hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, master, thou, 
theirs, thee, you, my, thy, our, your, their, his, her, — this, 
these ; that, those, — each, every, other, any, none, bride, 
daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, girl, madam, box, dog, lad ; a 
gay lady ; sweet apples ; strong bulls ; fat oxen ; a moun- 
tainous country. 

Compare — Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, 
good, bad, near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, 
spacious, splendid, gay, imprudent, pretty. 

The human mind ; cold water ; he, thou, she, it ; woody 
mountains ; the naked rock ; youthful jollity ; goodness 
divine ; justice severe ; this, thy, others, one ; a peevish 
boy ; hers, their strokes ; pretty girls ; his droning flight ; 
her delicate cheeks ; a man who ; the sun that ; a bird which ; 
himself, themselves, itself; that house ; these books. 

Correct — The person which waited on us yesterday. 
The horse who rode down the man. The dog who was 
chained at the door. Those sort of trees. These kind 
of persons. The angel which appeared to Moses. The 
boys which learned their lessons so well. The sun who 



§ 19 ETYMOLOGY'. 29 

shines so bright. Those kind of amusements. The 
woman which told me the story. The messenger which 
carried the letter. The court who sat last week. The 
member which spoke last. There were twenty men, 
each with a spear ; but neither of them was fully armed. 

§ 19. OF VERBS. 

1. A Verb is a word that expresses an action or 
state ; as. I write, you sit, he sleeps, they are. 

Obs. 1. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or de- 
clare. That of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. 

2. Verbs are of two kinds. Transitive and In- 

transitive ■.* 

3. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done by 
one person or thing to another ; as, James strikes 
the table. It has two forms called the Active and 
the Passive voice. § 21. 

* The terms Transitive and Intransitive are here preferred to the 
terms Active and Neuter, formerly used, as being a more accurate desig- 
nation of these two classes of verbs, and removing effectually the con- 
fusion and ambiguity arising from the double use of the term active, to 
denote a class of verbs, and also a particular form of the verb; as well 
as its being used by some to denote transitive verbs only, and by others 
to den. jrbe which express action, whe her transitive or intran- 

sitive. The term active is now used in this grammar, not to denote a 
class of verbs, but only that form of all verbs usually called the active 
voice. § 29. Still, However, should any teacher "prefer to use the 
terms active and neuter, it can easily be dene. 

The following are the most common divisions of the verb that have 
been used by grammarians. 

1. Murray divides verbs into Active. Passive, and Neuter. By active 
he means transitive verbs only, and by neuter, all verbs not transitive. 

2. Mr. Kirkham, and Mr. Smith, divide verbs also into Active. Pas- 
sive, and Neuter. Under the term active, they include all verbs which 
denote action of any kind, whether transitive "or intransitive : and under 
the term neuter, those only which denote being simply, or an inactive 
state of being. 

3 Mr. Brown divides verbs into four classes, called Active-transi- 
tive, Active-intransitive, Passive, and Nader. If we unite the second 
and fourth of these, which ought never to be divided, we have the divi- 
sion ot Murray. Unite the hrst and second, and we have the division 
of Kirkham. "For further remarks on these classifications, see Appen- 
dix, in. 5. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ' § 19 

4. An Intransitive Verb expresses being, or a 
state of being, or action confined to the actor ; as, I 
am, he sleeps, you run. 

Oes. 2. In this division, Transitive verbs include all those which ex- 
press an act that passes over from the actor, to an object acted uponj 
as, He loves us. Intransitive verbs include all verbs not transitive, 
whether they express an action or not; as, I am, you walk, they run. 
See §21, Obs. 2, 3. 

5. Intransitive Verbs, from their nature, can have 
no distinction of voice. Their form is generally ac- 
tive ; as, I stand, I run. A few admit also the pas- 
sive form ; as, " He is come ;" " they are gone ;" — 
equivalent to " He has come;' 9 "they have gone." 

6. Transitive Verbs in the active voice, and in- 
transitive verbs, being of the same form, can be dis- 
tinguished only by their signification and construc- 
tion. The following marks will enable the student 
to make this necessary distinction with ease and 
certainty. 

1st. A transitive active verb requires an object after it to complete 
the sense ; as, The boy studies grammar. § 48. Rem. 3. An intransi- 
tive verb requires no object after it, but the sense is complete without 
it; as, He sits, you ride. 

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
form ; thus, " James strikes the table," can be changed into " The table 
is struck by James." But the intransitive verb cannot be so changed ; 
thus, I smile, cannot be changed into I am smiled. 

3d. In the use of the transitive verb there are always three things 
implied, — the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of 
the intransitive there are only two — the subject or thing spoken of, and 
the state, or action attributed to it. 

7. In respect of form, verbs are divided into 
Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

8. A Regular verb is one that forms its Imperfect 



§ 20. ETYMOLOGY. 31 

Indicative, and its Perfect participle by adding d or 
ed to the Present; as, Present, love; Imperfect, 
loved ; Perfect participle, loved. 

9. An Irregular verb is one that does not form 
its Imperfect Indicative, and Perfect participle, by 
adding d or ed to the Present ; thus, Present, write • 
Imperfect, wrote; Perfect participle, written. 

10. A Defective verb is one that wants some of 
its parts. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary 
and Impersonal verbs. 

§ 20. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, by the help of 
which verbs are principally inflected, are the follow- 
ing, which, as auxiliaries, are used only in the pre- 
sent and past tenses; viz. 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, 

And the participles (of be,) being, been. 
Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Let (used by some Grammarians as an auxiliary in the impera- 
tive mood,) is properly an active verb, and complete. Ought is a de- 
fective verb, having, like must, only the present tense. 

2. Shall implies duty or obligation ; will, purpose or resolution ; may, 
liberty; can, ability. The past tense of these verbs, should, would, 
might, could, are very indefinite with respect to time ; being used to ex- 
press duty, purpose, liberty, and ability, sometimes with regard to what 
is past, sometimes with regard to what is present, and sometimes with 
regard to what is future ; thus, 

Past. He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged. 

Present. I would do it with pleasure, if I could. 

Future. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might, {could, 

would or should,) accompany him. 
In these and similar examples, the auxiliaries may be considered simply 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 20 

as denoting liberty, ability, will, or duly, without any reference to time in 
themselves, and that the precise time is indicated by the scope of the 
sentence. The same observation applies to must and ought, implying 
necessity and obligation. 

3. Would is sometimes used to denote what was customary ; as in 
the examples, " He would say ;" " He would desire," &c. Thus, 
Pleased with my admiration, and the fire 
His speech struck from me, the old man would shake 
His years away, and act his young encounters; 
Then, having shewed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down. 

4. Of Will and Shall, Would and Should. 

Will, in the Jir st person singular and plural, intimates resolution and 
promising ; as, I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. We wiU 
go. I will make of thee a great nation. 

Will, in the second and third persons, commonly foretels ; as, He will 
reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there. 

Shall, in the first person, only foretels ; as, I shall go to-morrow. We 
shall not return. 

In the second and third persons, shall, promises, commands, or threat- 
ens ; as, they, or you, shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. The 
soul that sinneth shall die. 

But this must be understood of affirmative sentences only ; for when 
the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place ; 
as, Shall I send you a little of the pie ? i. e. will you permit me to send 
it ? Will James return to-morrow? i. e. Do you expect him ? 

When the second and third persons are represented as the subjects 
of their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretels as 
in the Jirst person; as, "He says he shall be a loser by this bargain;" 
"Do you suppose you shall go?" And WILL promises, as in the 
first person; as, "He says he will bring Pope's Homer fx>morrow;" 
" You say you will certainly come." 

Of Shall it may be remarked, that it never expresses the will or re- 
solution of its nominative. Thus, I shall fall ; Thou shalt love thy neigh- 
bour ; He shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of I y 
thou, he. 

Did WiU, on' the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its no- 
minative, the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end : 
But this cannot be said ; for though will in the first person always ex- 
presses the resolution of its nominative, yet in the second and third per- 
sons it does not always foretel, but often intimates the resolution of its 
nominative as strongly as it does in the first person ; thus, " Ye will 
not come unto me, that ye may have life." " He will not perform the 
duty of my husband's brother " Deut. xxv. 7 ; see also verse 9. 



§ 21. ETYMOLOGY. 33 

Accordingly would, the ^s^ time of will, is used in the same manner ; 
as "And he was angry, and would not go in." Luke xv. 28. 

Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will 
They are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, 1 
should soon be fatigued, &c. 

Shoidd is often used instead of ought, to express duty or obligation , 
as, "We should remember the poor." "We ought to obey God rather 
than men." 

Would is sometimes used as a principal verb for I wish ; as, " Would 
that they were gone," for "I wish that they were gone." Thus used 
it is in the present tense. 

§ 21. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons* 

OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shows the relation of the subject, or thing spoken of, 
to the action expressed by the verb. 

In English the transitive verb has always two 
voices, the Active and Passive. 

The Active Voice represents the subject of the 

verb as acting upon some object; as, James strikes 

the table. 

Here the verb " strikes" in the active voice, indicates what its sub- 
ject "James" does to the object table. 

The Passive Voice represents the subject of the 

verb as acted upon by some person or thing; as, the 

table is struck by James. 

Here the verb "is struck" in the passive voice indicates what is 
done to the subject " table" by James. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1. The transitive verb always expresses the same act whether it be 
m the active or passive form. In both it is equally transitive, i. e. the 
act expressed by it in either form, passes over from the person or thing 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 21 

acting, to the person or thing acted upon. Hence the same idea may be 
expressed with equal propriety in both forms, simply by changing the ob- 
ject of the active voice into the subject of the passive ; thus, 

Actively. Ccesar conquered Gaul. 

Passively. Gaul was conquered by Ccesar. 
Both these sentences express the same act " conquering." In both, 
" Ccesar" is represented as the conqueror, and " Gaul" the conquered. 
The meaning then being the same, the difference lies only in their gram- 
matical structure. The subject of the verb in the first sentence is Ccesar, 
— in the second, Gaul ; — in the first the subject is spoken of as acting,-* 
in the second, as acted upon. It follows then that active and passive do 
not denote two different kinds of verb, but one kind under two different 
forms, denominated the Active and Passive voice. It is manifest, how- 
ever, that though both these forms express the same act, yet the subject 
of each stands in a different relation to that act. The subject of the ac- 
tive voice puts forth the act expressed by the verb, the subject of the pas 
sive receives it : in other words, the subject of the verb in the active 
voice is active ; the subject of the verb in the passive voice is passive. 

This power of the verb enables us not only to vary the form of expres- 
sion at pleasure, but to fix the attention on the actor without regard to 
the object ; as, " James reads ; " or on the c-bject without regard to the 
actor ; as, "virtue is praised. This may be necessary when, as in some 
cases, the actor, or, in others, the object, is either unknown, or unimpoi 
tant, or, for some reason, we may wish it not to be mentioned. 

2. Intransitive verbs are sometimes renaerea transitive, ana so capa- 
ble of a passive form, 1st. By the addition of another word; thus, "I 
laugh" is intransitive, and cannot have the passive form ; but, " I laugh 
at" is transitive, and has the passive ; as, I " am laughed at" 2. When 
followed by a noun of the same or similar signification as an object ; 
as, intr. I run ; trans. I run a race ; passive, A race is run by me. 

3. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and some- 
times in an intransitive sense; thus, in the phrase, " Charity thinketh no 
evil," think is transitive : in the phrase, " Think on me," it is intransitive** 

4. IVtany verbs in the active voice by an idiom peculiar to the English, 
are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which the pas- 
give will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field 
ploughs well ;" " These lines read smoothly ;" " This fruit tastes bitter ;" 
" Linen wears better than cotton." The idea here expressed, is quite dif- 
ferent from that expressed by the passive form, " This field is well 
ploughed;" " These lines are smoothly read" Sometimes, however, 
the same idea is expressed by both forms ; thus, " Wheat sells readily," 
or " is sold readily at an advanced price." (Expressions of this kind 
are usually made in French by the reflected verb • thus, " Ce champ se 



§ 22. ETYMOLOGY. 35 

laboure bien j" " Ces lignes se lisent aisement.") Wrien used in this 
sense, they may properly be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are 
never followed by an objective case 

§ 22. OF THE MOODS.* 

Mood is the mode ox manner of expressing the sig- 
nification of the verb. 

Verbs have jive moods ; namely, the Indicative, 
Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative mood simply declares a thing ; 
as, He loves ; He is loved ; Or, it asks a question ; as, 
Lovest thou me ? 

2. The Potential mood never declares the positive 
existence of a thing, either as present, past, or future ; 
but simply the possibility, liberty, power, will, or 
obligation to be, to do, or to suffer ; as, The wind 
may blow ; We may -walk or ride ; I can swim ; 
He would not stay ; You should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under 
a condition, supposition, motive, wish, &c. and is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb in the indicative future, po- 
tential, or imperative; as, "If thy presence go not 
with us, cany us not up hence.' 5 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits ; as, Do this ; Remember thy Crea- 
tor ; Hear, O my people ; Go thy way for this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a 

* Explanations of the moods and tenses of verbs, are inserted here for the sake 
of order ; but it would perhaps be improper to detain the learner so long as to 
commit them to memory : He may, therefore, after getting the definition of a verb, 
proceed to the inflection of it, without delay ; and when he comes to the exercises 
on the verbs, he can look back to the definition of verbs,mood s, &c. as occasion 
may require. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 22 

general manner, without any distinction of number 
or person, and commonly has to before it ; as. To 
love. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOODS. 

1. The future indicative is sometimes used potentially ; i. e. the aux- 
iliaries will and shall belong to the present potential, as well as may, 
or can, or must, when they express present loULingness or obligation. 
In this case, the futurity implied is contingent, and not absolute ; as, 
He will do it, if properly solicited. And hence the corresponding would 
and should, as well as might and could, belong to the past tense. The 
potential mood has no future tense. 

2. The subjunctive mood is always dependent upon, or is subjoined 
to, another verb, expressed or understood. It is sometimes called con 
junctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction ; as, if, though, 
imless, &.c. Sometimes it is called conditional, because it usually ex 
presses a condition on which something is suspended. It differs in 
form from the indicative, in the present tense only; — in the verb to be, 
in the present and past. The potential mood is also used subjunc- 
tively, i. e. as dependent on another verb; as, He would do it if he 
could (do it.) 

Respecting the form and extent of the subjunctive mood, there has 
been some variety of practice among writers, and much variety of opi- 
nion among Grammarians. Some deny the existence of a subjunctive 
form altogether ; and consider what is called the subjunctive as only 
an elliptical form of the future or potential. Among these are Ash, 
Wilson, Grant, and Crombie. Others, such as Johnson, Ward, 
and Pinnock, assign to it a distinct form in the present and perfect, 
differing from the indicative in having the second and third persons • 
singular the same as the first. Thus, 

Present Sing. If I love, If thou love, If he love. 

Perfect Sing. If I have loved, If thou have loved, If he have 
loved. 
Though some examples of this form of the perfect subjunctive are found 
in old writers of high authority, (see 1 Tim. v. 10) it is believed to be 
now nearly, if not entirely, obsolete. Lowth, and Coote, and Murray, 
and the great body of Grammarians since their day, agreeably to the 
practice of the most correct and elegant writers, limit the subjunctive 
termination of the principal verb to the second and third persons singu- 
lar of the present tense ; ail the other parts being precisely as the in- 



§ 22. ETYMOLOGY. 37 

dicative. The weight of authority is decidedly in favour of this prac- 
tice, and accordingly in their place will be found full paradigms of the 
subjunctive mood in this form. 

3. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second per- 
son, singular and plural ; because, in commanding, exhorting, &c. the 
language of address is always used ; thus, "Let him love," is equiva- 
lent to, "Let thou him love ;" where Let is the proper imperative, and 
love the infinitive governed by it. (Syntax, § 67, — 1, 2.) 

4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, having 
the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive ; and hence 
it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the object after it. 
(Syntax, § 47, Rule u. ; and § 48, Rem. 3.) 

Note. Some Grammarians are of opinion that no more moods or 
tenses ought to be assigned to the verb in English, than are distin- 
guished by difference of form in the simple verb. This principle rejects 
at once the whole passive voice ; and in the active, retains only the 
present and past tense of the indicative mood, and the present of the 
subjunctive. To carry out this' principle to its full extent, we should 
reject also the plural number of the tenses that are left; for this is al- 
ways in the same form with the first person singular. This certainly 
reduces the English verb to very narrow limits, and renders it a very 
simple thing ; so simple, indeed, as to be of little use, being capable of 
expressing an action or state only in two relations of time. 

This simplification of the verb, however, tends only to perplex the 
language ; for though it reduces the number of moods and tenses, it 
does not, and can not, reduce the number of the forms of speech, by 
which the different times or modes of action are expressed. It is cer- 
tain, for example, that we have such forms of speech as, " have loved," 
"shall love," " might love," &c. Now since these and other similar 
forms of speech only express different relations of time and manner of 
the one act, " to love," it certainly does seem more easy and simple 
to regard them as different moods and tenses of the verb to love, than 
to elevate the auxiliary to the rank of a principal verb, and then to 
combine them syntactically with the verb to love. Indeed, to dispose 
of them in this way satisfactorily, is not a quite easy or simple matter. 
For example, in the sentence, " I have written a letter," it is easy 
enough to say that have is a verb trans. &c. and ivritten a perfect par- 
ticiple ; but when we inquire, what does have govern ? what does 
written agree with ? a correct and satisfactory answer will not be so 
easily found. This example will perhaps show that it is much easier, 
and quite as satisfactory, to rank the expression as a certain mood and 
tense of the verb, "to write." 

This theory has its foundation in the supposition, that a tense, or 
mood must necessarily mean a distinct form of the simple verb. This 
supposition, however, is entirely gratuitous. There is nothing in the 
meaning of the word mood or tense, which countenances it. A verb is 
a word which expresses action ; tense, expresses the action connected 
with certain relations of time ; mood, represents it as farther modified by 

5 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 23. 

circumstances of contingency, coiiditionality, &c. ; but whether these 
modifications are expressed by a change in the form of the simple verb, 
or by its combination with certain auxiliaries, seems to be a matter 
perfectly indifferent. Indeed, the generally received opinion is, that 
the different forms of the verb, denominated mood and tense, in Latin 
and Greek, are nothing more than the incorporation of the auxiliary 
with the root of the simple verb. If so, why should not the uniform 
juxtaposition of the auxiliary with the verb, to answer the same pur- 
pose, be called by the same name? If a certain auxiliary, connected 
with a verb, express a certain relation of time, properly denominated 
the future tense ; what essential difference can it make, whether the 
two words combine into one, or merely stand together ? On the whole, 
then, there is nothing gained by the proposed simplification : Indeed, 
on the contrary, much, even of simplicity, is lost ; and it moreover 
deprives our language of the analogy which it has in mood and tense 
with other languages, modern as well as ancient; and if adopted, in- 
stead of smoothing the path of the learner, it would tend only to perplex 
and obscure it. 

§ 23. OF TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

Tenses are certain modifications of the verb which 
point out the distinctions of time. 

The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. 
The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Plu- 
perfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect. 

Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and Future : And 
an action may be represented, either as incomplete and continuing, 
or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, 
only two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of the 
verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs, thus : 
p ( Action continuing ; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving. 

( Action completed ; as, I have loved. 

{ Action continuing ; as, I loved, I did love, or I was loving. 

( Action completed ; as, I had loved. 
r ( Action continuing ; as, I shall or will love. 

\ Action completed ; as, I shall have loved. 
In order better to express the time, and the state of the action, by 
one designation, these tenses, in the above order, may be properly de- 
nominated, The Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, 
the Future, and the Future-perfect. 

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on 
at the present time : as, I love you. 



§ 24. ETYMOLOGY. 39 

2. The Imperfect tense represents an action cr 
event indefinitely as past ; as, He broke the bottle 
and spilt the brandy; or it represents the action de- 
finitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain 
time, now entirely past ; as, My father xoas coming 
home when I met him. 

3. The Perfect tense represents an action as fin- 
ished at the present time ; as, John has cut his fin- 
ger ; I have sold my horse ; I have done nothing 
this week. 

4. The Pluperfect represents an action or event 
as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
u All the judges had taken their places before Sir 
Roger came." 

5. The Future tense represents an action or event 
indefinitely as yet to come ; as, " I will see you again, 
and your hearts shall rejoice" 

6. The Future-perfect intimates that an action 
or event will be completed at or before a certain time 
yet future ; as, I shall have got my lesson before ten 
o'clock to-morrow. 

Obs. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Simple 
tenses; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. In the 
simple form of the verb, the simple tenses are the Present and Imper- 
fect, Indicative and Subjunctive, Active; all the other tenses are com' 
pound, 

§24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

I. The Present tense has three distinct forms — 
the simple; as, I read; the emphatic; as, I do 
read ; and the progressive ; as, I am reading. (§ 28.) 
The first or simple form expresses- 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 24. 

1. The simple existence of the fact; as, He speaks; She writes ; 
They walk. 

2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true; as, He 
takes snuff; She goes to church ; Virtue is its own reward. In this 
sense it is applied to express the feelings which persons long since 
dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds ; as, Nero is 
abhorred for his cruelty ; Milton is admired for his sublimity. 

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the past 
tense ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy 
with five thousand men"— and sometimes for the Perfect ; as, " In the 
book of Genesis, Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abra 
ham," for has told us. 

4. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as, after, 
and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action ; as, 
When he comes he will be welcome ; As soon as the Post arrives, the 
letters will be distributed. 

5. The Emphatic form expresses a fact with em- 
phasis, and is made by adding the simple form with- 
out inflection to the auxiliary do in the Present and 
Imperfect Indicative ; as, I do love, I did love : and 
by placing an emphasis on the auxiliary in the Com- 
pound tenses ; as, I will do it. He must go. § 26. 

6. The Progressive form represents an action as 
begun, and in progress at the time of speaking. It 
is formed by annexing the Present participle to the 
verb to be, as an auxiliary, through all its moods and 
tenses ; as, I am writing, I toas writing, &c. § 28. 

II. The Imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to 
those in the present tense : thus, I loved, I did love, I was loving. 
The first of these may be called simple and indefinite, because in itself 
it simply represents an action as past, without referring necessarily to 
any particular time at which it took place ; as, " Caesar conquered 
Gaul." It may, however, be rendered definite by introducing some 
definition of time ; as, yesterday, last week, &c. The second form 
is emphatic, and expresses the same idea with emphasis. The third 
form may be termed definite, since it intimates an action continuing, 
and necessarily refers to a certain past time expressed or understood ; 



% - 24. ETYMOLOGY. 41 

as, My father was coming home when I met him. All the forms of 
this tense speak of the action or event as taking place in a time now 
•ntirely past : Or if within a portion of time, some of which still re- 
mains, yet at a point of time in that portion having no connexion with 
the present moment ; as, I ivrote to-day. 

III. The Perfect tense never connects an action or event with time 
entirely past, but always with time present ; i. e. with the present in- 
stant, or with a period some part of which is yet present ; as, this day, 
week, year, &c. Thus, we cannot say, I have written yesterday ; but, 
I have written to-day, this week, &e. Of this tense there are two 
forms, e. g. 1 have written, and I have been writing. The latter pro- 
perly represents the action as just completed at the present time; the 
former is less definite, expressing an action completed within a period 
extending to the present, but giving no information at what point in 
that period the completion was effected ; as, " Many discoveries have 
been made in philosophy and the arts since the days of Bacon." It is 
also used to express an action or state continued through a period 
reaching to the present ; as, He has studied grammar six months — of, 
if the action itself is long since past, still it is continued to the present 
in. its consequences. Thus we can say, "Cicero has written orations," 
because the orations are still in existence ; but we cannot say, " Cice- 
ro has written poems," but " Cicero wrote poems," because the poems 
do not now exist. Sometimes this tense is employed to express an 
attribute the contrary of that which is expressed by the verb. Thus, 
the Latins used vixit, "He hath lived," to denote "He is dead ;" Ilium 
fuit, " Troy has been," to signify " Troy is no more." So in English, 
"I have been young," equivalent to " Now I am old." 

IV. The Pluperfect tense has the same relation to the Imperfect 
tense that the Perfect has to the present tense. It has all that variety 
of form and use which the perfect has, but connects the completed ac- 
tion or event expressed by the verb with some point or period of 
time now wholly past ; as, then, yesterday, last century, &c. ; as, I 
had written yesterday; Many discoveries in philosophy and the arts 
had been made before the days of Bacon ; At that time he had studied 
grammar six months. 

V. The same general observations apply to the Future and Future- 
perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet future. 

VI. The six tenses here enumerated belong but in part to all the 
moods, except the indicative. The potential has only four tenses ; the 
subjunctive, in most verbs, only one distinct from the indicative ; the 
Imperative but one ; the infinitive two ; and the Darticiple three. 

5* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 25 , 26 

VII. The Past tenses both of the Potential and Subjunctive moods, 
are much less definite with respect to the time of the action or state 
expressed by the verb, than the same tenses in the Indicative. For 
examples of this in the Potential mood, see § 20, Obs. 2. 

The Imperfect subjunctive expresses contingency, &c. respecting 
what is past, but yet unknown, only when referring to past time ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " If I saw your friend last year I have for- 
gotten it." But in connection with the potential mood, or not re- 
ferring to past time, the imperfect subjunctive has this peculiarity 
of usage — it expresses a supposition with respect to something pre- 
sent, but implies a denial of the thing supposed ; thus, " If I had 
the money now I would pay it," implies that I have it not. " If he 
were well (now) he would go," — implying " he is sick." The pre. 
sent tense here conveys a very different idea ; thus, •* If I have the 
money, I will pay it," &c. In order to express the first of these 
examples in past time, the pluperfect must be used ; thus, If I had 
had the money yesterday, I would have paid it. 

§ 25. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

1. Every tense of the verb'except in the infini 
tive mood has two Numbers, the singular and plural ; 
and each of these, three Persons. 

The First person asserts of the person speaking ; 
as, I write, we w r rite. 

The Second^ asserts of the person spoken to j as, 
Thou writest, ye or you write. 

The Thirds asserts of the person or thing spoken 
of; as, He writes, they w T rite. §6 and § 15. Obs. 1. 

§ 26. OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

1. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 

2. In parsing, a verb is conjugated by giving Its 
Present, and Imperfect tenses, and Perfect Parti- 



5 26. ETYMOLOGY. 43 

ciple whether it be in the active or in the passive 
voice; thus, 

Present, Imperfect, Perf. Part. 

Active. Love, Loved, Loved. 

Passive. Am loved, Was loved, Been loved. 

3. The regular verb, to love, is inflected through 
all its moods and tenses, as follows : — 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Present. Love. Imperfect. Loved. Perf. Part. Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. (Simple Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. person I love. 1. "We love. 

2. Thou lovest 2. Ye or you* love. 

3. He loves or loveth. 3. They love. 

Present Tense. (Emphatic Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. (Simple Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Imperfect Tense. (Emphatic Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

* You has always a plural verb, even when applied to a single individual.— 
% 15, Obs. 3. Ye, being seldom used, is omitted in the other tenses to save room. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 26 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Signs — Have, hast, has or hath. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Signs — Had, hadst. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2, You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Tense. 

Signs — Shall or will. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Signs — Shall have, or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall or will have loved. 1. Shall or will have loved. 

2. Shalt or wilt have loved. 2. Shall or will have loved. 

3. Shall or will have loved. 3. Shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Signs — May, can, or must. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. May or can or must love. 1. May or can or must love, 

2. Mayst or canst or must love. 2 May or can or must lcve. 

3. May or can or must love. 3. May or can or must love. 



§ 26 ETYMOLOGY. 45 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Signs — Might, could, icould, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Might, could, would, or 

or should st love. should love. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Signs — May have, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. May 07- must have loved. 1. May or must have loved. 

2. Mayst or must have loved. 2. May or must have loved. 

3. May or must have loved. 3. May or must have loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Signs — Might have, could have, ivould have, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should have loved. should have loved. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or 

should st have loved. should have loved. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, oi 

should have loved. should have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. 7/ he love. 3. If they love.* 

Emphatic Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. If thou do love. 2. If you do love. 

3. If he do love. 3. If they do love. 



* The conjunctions, if, though, unless, &c. do not form any part of the sub- 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §26. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

Emphatic Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I did love. 1. If we did love. 

2. If thou didst love. 2. //you did love. 

3. If he did love. 3. //they did love. 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 

3. If he has or hath loved. 3. If they have loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. if thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 

3. 7/ he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

l.Ifl shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love. 

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If you shall or will have loved. 

3. I/" he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved. 

innctive mood, but are usually placed before it, to express a condition, supposi- 
tion, motive, wish, &c. See § 21, 3, and § 22, Obs. 2. 
N. B. For the Progressive form of the verb, see § 28. 



§ 26. ETYMOLOGY. 47 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or Love thou, or 2. Love, or Love ye or you, 
Do thou love. or Do ye love. 

IXFIMTIVE MOOD. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. Compound perf. Having loved. 

EXERCISES ON THE TENSES OF VERBS, AND CASES OF NOUNS 
AND PRONOUNS. 

TeZZ fAe person, number, mood, and tense of, — They 
love ; learn you ; they had walked ; he shall have learned ; 
thou hadst painted ; we can gain ; to form ; to have joined ; 
obeys : lovedst ; teaches : we could stand ; she has learned ; 
we shall have gone ; they will have come ; I do love ; thou 
didst love ; they did love. 

Parse the following words and, sentences :* — We love 
him ; I love you ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we 
shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers 
should defend their country ; friends invite friends ; she 
can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might 
please her ; thou may est ask him ; he may have betrayed 
us ; we might have diverted the children ; Tom can de- 
liver the message. 

I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we 

* QUESTIONS which may be put to the pupils: — How do you know that love 
is plural! Arts. Because zee, its nominative, is plural. How do you know that 
love is the first person 1 Ans. Because we is the first personal pronoun, and the 
verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun be- 
fore it 

Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a different 
kind ; thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be expressed by the 
passive voice ; as He is loved by us. It may also be turned into a question, or 
made a negative ; as, Do toe love him ? &c. We do 7wt lave him. 



&8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27. 

tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have 
commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved ; 
loved ; loving ; to survey ; having surveyed ; write a let- 
ter ; read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ; ho- 
nour thy father ; his mother teaches him ; love ; loved. 

The teacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner with the 
difference between the Nominative and Objective. 

When the verb is active, the Nominative acts ; the Objective is acted 
upon ; as, He eats apples. 

The Nominative commonly comes before the verb ; the Objective 
after it ; as, We saw them. In asking questions, the nominative fol- 
lows the verb in the simple tenses, and the auxiliary in the compound 
tenses; as, Lovest thou me 1 did he come? may we go? is it fin- 
ished ? 

We may parse the first sentence, for example. We love ; We, the 
first personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, plural, the nominative j 
love, a verb trans, in thepres. indicative,active, first pers. plu.; him, the 
third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the objective. 

§ 27. The intransitive irregular verb To be, is in- 
flected through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

Present. Am. Imperfect. Was. Perfect participle. Bean. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was. 1. We were 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 



§27, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



49 



Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. Pie had been 3. They had been. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular Plural. 

1. Shall or will have been. 1. Shall or will have been. 

2. Shalt or wilt have been. 2. Shall or will have been. 

3. Shall or will have been. 3. Shall or will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I. I may or can or 1. We may or can or 



must be. 



must be. 



2. Thou mayst or canst or 2. You may or can or 

must be. must be. 

3. He may or can or 3. They may or can or 

must be. must be. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or 

shouldst be. should be. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should be.* should be. 

* Were is sometimes used for would be in the 3rd singular ; thus, M That were 
.ow indeed "—Milt. 

6 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. May or must have been. 1. May or must have been. 

2. Mayst or must have been. 2. May or must have been. 
3 May or must have been. 3. May or must have been. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

2. Mightst, could st, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, oi 

shouldst have been. should have been. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, o y 

should have been. should have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I, or if I were. 1. Were we, or if we were. 

2. Wert thou, or if thou wert. 2. Were you, or if you were. 

3. Were he, or if he were. 3. Were they, or if they were. 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been. I. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 3. //they have been. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. J^he had been* 3. # they had been. 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 51 

Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. //I shall or will be. 1. If we shall or will be. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be. 2. J/" you shall or will be. 

3. If he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been. 1. Jf we shall or will have been. 

2. 7/ thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. If you shall or will have been. 

3. If he shall or will have been. 3. If 'they shall or will have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be,* or Be thou. 2. Be, or Be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be. Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound-perfect. Having been 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB TO BE. 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall 
be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they will 
have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayest be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
he must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it 
could be, would st be, you could be, he may have been, 
wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 

* Be is sometimes used in the Scriptures, and some o'her books, for the pre 
sent indicative ; as. " We be true men ;' lor >• We arc true men." 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 28, 29. 

have been ; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were, 
I be. 

Be thou 5 be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
heen^ be, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are 
old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ; 
be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; they 
should be virtuous ; thou mightst be wiser ; they must 
have been excellent scholars ; they might have been pow - 
erful. 

§ 28. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive form of the verb (§ 24. 6) is in- 
flected by prefixing the verb to he through all its 
moods and tenses to the present participle ; thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, 1. I am loving. 2. Thou art loving, &c. 

Imperfect. 1. I was loving. 2. Thou wast loving, &c. 

Perfect 1. I have been loving. 2. Thou hast been loving, &c. 

Pluperfect. 1. I had been loving. 2. Thou hadst been loving, &c. 

Future. 1. I shall be loving. 2. Thou shalt be loving, &c. 

Future perf. 1, I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been loving. loving, &c. 

Note. In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 

§ 29. PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Passive voice is inflected by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary verb to be (§ 27.) through 
all its moods and tenses ; thus, 

Pres. Am loved. Imperfect. Was loved. Perf. Part. Loved. 






§ 29. ETYMOLOGY. 53 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1 . We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Was loved. 1. Were loved. 

2. Wast loved. 2. Were loved. 

3. Was loved. 3. Were loved. 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Si7igular. Plural. 

1. Have been loved. 1. Have been loved. 

2. Hast been loved. 2. Have been loved. 

3. Has been loved. 3. Have been loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had been loved. 1. Had been loved. 

2. Hadst been loved. 2. Had been loved. 

3. Had been loved. 3. Had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. Shall or will be loved. 1. Shall or will be loved. 

2. Shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Shall or will be loved. 

3. Shall or will be loved. 3. Shall or will be loved. 



Future-perfect Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall or will have been loved. 1. Shall or will have been loved. 

2. Shalt or wilt have been loved. 2. Shall or will have been loved. 

3. Shall or will have been loved. 3. Shall or will have been loved. 

6* 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 29. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. May or can be loved. 1. May or can be loved. 

2. Mayst or canst be loved. 2. May or can be loved. 

3. May or can be loved. 3. May or can be loved. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, &e. be loved. 1. Might, &c. be loved. 

2. Mightst, be loved. 2. Might, be loved. 

3. Might, be loved. 3. Might, be loved. 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. May or must have been loved. 1. May or must have been loved. 

2. Mayst or must have been loved. 2. May or must have been loved. 

3. May or must have been loved. 3. May or must have been loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, &c. have been loved. 1. Might, &c. have been loved. 

2. Mightst, .have been loved. 2. Might, have been loved. 

3. Might, have been loved. 3. Might, have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I beloved 1. If we beloved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he beloved. 3. // they be loved. 

Imperfect, (or Past) Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

1. Were I loved, or If I were 1. Were we loved, or If we were 

loved. loved. 

2. Wert thou loved, or If thou 2. Were you loved, or If you 

wert loved. were loved. 

3. Were he loved, or If he were 3. Were they loved, or If thev 

loved. were loved. 



A 29 ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Perfect, (or Present Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

J If I have been loved. I. If we have been loved. 

2. If thaw hast been loved. 2. If you have been loved. 

3. //he has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect, (or Past Perfect) Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 7/1 had been loved. 1. If we had been loved. 

2. 7/* thou hadst been loved. 2. 7/" you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 3. if they had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. 7/1 shall or will be loved. l.Ifvre shall or will be loved. 

2. 7/" thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. 7/ you shall or will be loved. 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been 1. If we shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been 2. 7/" you shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 

3. If he shall or will have been 3. If they shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

ft. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Perf. Loved. 

Compound perf. Having been loved. 

&CT After the pupil is expert in going over the tenses of the verb, as given in 
he above tables, he may then D6 exercised in using one auxiliary at a time.— 



53 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 29 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB PASSIVE. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it 
is loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have 
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; 
w& shall be loved; thou wilt be loved; they will be 
loved; I shall have been loved; you will have been 
loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be 
loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they 
should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been 
loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have been 
loved ; if I be loved J* thou wert loved ; we be loved ; 
they be loved. Be thou loved ; be ye loved ; you be 
loved. To be loved ; loved ; having been loved ; to 
have been loved ; being loved. 

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and 
Pronouns. 

Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; 
he has learned his lesson; she invited him; your father 
may commend you ; he was baptized ; the minister bap- 
tized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa 
will reprove us; divide the apples; the captain had com- 
manded his soldiers to pursue the enemy ; Eliza divert- 
ed her brother ; a hunter killed a hare ; were I loved ; 
were we good we should be happy ; James did write ; 
they are reading ; I have been running ; I did run : they 
do come ; he might be doing something , they must have 
been travelling. 

Tims, Present Potential, I may love ; Thou mayest love, &c. And then with 
the next auxiliary ; I can love ; Thou canst love ; He can love. And then with 
the next ; I must love ; Thou must love ; He must love, &c, proceeding in the 
same manner with the auxiliaries of the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. 
* A Conjunction is frequently to be understood here. 



§ 30, 31. ETYMOLOGY. 57 

§ 30. OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
1. The Participle is a part of the verb which 
contains no affirmation, but expresses being, doing 
or suffering, as a general quality of an object, and 
has the same construction as the adjective. The 
Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and 
the Compound-Perfect. 

2. The present participle in -ing always expresses an action, or the 
suffering of an action, or the being, state, or condition of a thing as 
continuing and progressive, 

3. The Present participle of the active voice has an active signification ; 
as, James is building the house. In many of these, however, it has 
also a passive signification ; as, the house was building when the wall 
fell. 

4. The Present participle passive has only a passive signification, 
and intimates the present existence of an act as completed, but never 
as in progress. Thus, " The arrangements being made, he is now 
ready to proceed." In this sentence, " the arrangements," are evidently 
considered as completed. To represent them as in progress, we 
would say thus: "While the arrangements are making, his superin- 
tendence is indispensable" — -using the participle making in the pas- 
sive sense. 

5. The Perfect participle, in trans, verbs, has either an active or 
passive signification; as, "He has concealed a dagger under his 
cloak ;" or, "He has a dagger concealed under his cloak." 

6. The Compound-perfect participle has an active signification only 
in the active voice, and a passive signification only in the passive 
voice. 

7. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal noun, having the 
nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive. In this cha- 
racter, the participle of a trans, verb may still retain the government 
of the verb, or it may be divested of it by inserting the preposition of 
after it, in which case an article or possessive pronoun should always 
precede it— See Syntax, § 64. 

§31. OBSERVATIONS. 

It has lately become common to use the present participle passive to 
express the suffering of an action as continuing, instead of the parti- 
ciple in -ing in the passive sense ; thus, instead of, " The house is 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 31. 

building," we now very frequently hear, " The house is being built." 
This mode of expression, besides being awkward, is incorrect, and 
does not express the idea intended. This will be obvious, I think, 
from the following considerations. 

1. The expression, " is being," is equivalent to, " is," and expresses 
no more ; just as, "is loving," is equivalent to, " loves." Hence, "is 
being built," is precisely equivalent to " is built." 

2. "Built," is a. perfect participle; and therefore cannot, in any 
connexion, express an action, or the suffering of an action, now in 
progress. The verb to be, signifies to exist; "being" therefore, is 
equivalent to " existing." If then we substitute the synonyme, the 
nature of the expression will be obvious ; thus, " the house is being 
built," is in otrMSfc words, " the house is existing built," or more simply 
as before, " the house is built ;" plainly importing an action not pro- 
gressing, but now existing in a finished state. 

3. If the expression "is being built" be a correct form of the present 
indicative passive, then it must be equally correct to' say in the pre- 
sent perfect, "has been being built ;" in the pluperfect, "had been 
being built ;" in the present infinitive, " to be being built ;" in the 
perfect infinitive, " to have been being built ;" and in the present 
participle, " being being built ;" which all will admit to be expressions 
as incorrect as they are inelegant, but precisely analogous to that 
which now begins to prevail. 

This mode of expression has probably arisen from assuming that 
the English participle in -ing corresponds to the Latin participle in ns 7 
which has always an active signification, and that the perfect partici- 
ple in English corresponds to the perfect participle in Latin, which, 
except in deponent verbs, is always passive. But since it is obvious 
that the analogy does not hold between the two languages in the lat- 
ter case, there is no good reason why it should hold in the former. 
On the contrary, as the perfect participle in English has both an ac- 
tive and passive signification, analogy claims an equal latitude of 
meaning for the participle in -ing; and this claim has been allowed 
by the best writers of the English language. The present participle 
active, and the present participle passive, are not counterparts to each 
other in signification ; the one signifying the present doing, and the 
other the present suffering of an action, for the latter always intimates 
the present being of an act, not in progress, but completed. The 
proper counterpart to the participle in -ing in the active sense, is the 
same participle in its passive sense, or some equivalent circumlo*? 5 *- 
tion, when a passive sense is not admitted. 



§ 31 ETYMOLOGY. 59 

It is true that of many verbs, the participle in -ing is not used in a 
passive sense. For example, we would not say, " the book is reading." 
It would be equally incorrect to say, u the book is being read." Our 
not using the former expression in this case, and in others of a similar 
nature, is owing to this, that custom has sanctioned a different mode of 
expressing the same idea. 

QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. 
$ 19. What is a verb ? How many kinds of verbs are there. Define 
a transitive verb — an intransitive verb. Into what three classes may all 
verbs be divided ? What is a regular verb ? — an irregular ? — a defective ? 
What sort of a distinction is active and passive ? Have intransitive verbs 
any distinction of voice ? How are some intransitive verbs rendered 
transitive ? Are transitive verbs ever used in an intransitive sense ? 
Give an example. 
§ 20. What are auxiliary verbs? Name them. What kind of 
a verb is let ? — ought? What does shall imply? — will ? — may ? 
— can ? Name the past tenses of these verbs. Do they always ex 
press past time ? If not, how is the time expressed by them to be as- 
certained ? What does will express in the first person ? — in the se- 
cond and third ? What does shall express in the first person ? — in the 
second and third ? 

§21,22. How is a verb inflected? How many voices are there? 
How are they distinguished ? What is mood ? How many moods are 
there ? Define the indicative, — the potential, — the subjunctive, — the 
imperative, — the infinitive. What tense of the indicative is used po- 
tentially ? On what is the subjunctive always dependent ? By what 
other name is it called ? In what tense does it differ from the indica- 
tive ? W^hat person has the imperative mood ? Why ? W T hat is 
the proper character of the infinitive ? 

§ 23. What is meant by tense ? How many tenses are there ? 
Name them ? How is time naturally divided ? In what different 
states do the tenses represent an action in each of these divisions of 
time ? W r hat tenses represent the act as incomplete and continuing ? 
What tenses represent it as completed ? How does the Present tense 
represent an action ? — the Past ? — the Perfect ? — the Pluperfect ? — the 
Future ? — the Future-perfect ? 

§ 24. How many distinct forms has the Present tense ? Give the 
forms of the present of the verb " to love" Distinguish them by 
names, and state how they are applied. How many forms are there 
of the Imperfect tense ? Give examples, and distinguish them by 
names How is the indefinite applied? — the emphatic? — the pro« 



m 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 32, 



gressive or definite? — How many forms has the Perfect? How are 
they applied ? In what different ways is the less definite form ap 
plied ? Can this tense be used to express an act completed prior to 
the present, as yesterday, last week, &c. ? Give the different forms 
and application of the Pluperfect, — of the Future, — of the Future- 
perfect. 

§ 25. Hon? many numbers are there ? How many persons: ? What 
does the first person indicate ? — the second 1—the third ? Which per- 
sons are always alike ? How is the second person singular formed 1 
— the third person singular ? 

§ 26. How are verbs divided in respect of their inflection ? What is 
a regular verb ? — an irregular verb ? — How is a verb conjugated ? In 
the indicative mood, what are the sigus of the Perfect ? — of the Plu 
perfect? — of the Future? — of the Future- perfect ? In the Potential 
mood, what are the signs of the Present? — of the Imperfect? — of the 
Perfect ?— of the Pluperfect? 

§ 30. What is a Participle ? How many Participles are there ? 
Name them. What does the participle in ing express ? Has it ever 
a passive sense ? — Give an example. How is the Present participle 
passive used ? — the Perfect participle active ? — the Perfect ? Describe 
the use of the Present participle as a verbal noun. 



§ 32. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

1. An Irregular verb is one that does not form both 
its imperfect tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present ; as, 



Present. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




was 


been 


Arise 




arose 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke r* 


awaked 


Bake 




baked 


baken r 


Bear, to bring 


forth 


bare or bore 


born 


Bear, to carry 




bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 




began 


begun 


Bend 




bent r 


bent r 



* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as irregularly, are marked 
with an R. 



<s 32. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



61 



Present 
Bereave 
Beseech 
Bid 

Bind un- 
Bite 
Bleed 
Blow 
Break. 
Breed 
Bring 
Build re- 
Burst 
Buy 
Cast 
Catch 
Chide 
Choose 

Cleave, to adhere 
Cleave, to split 
Cling 
Clothe 
Come fee- 
Cost 
Crow 
Creep 
Cut 

Dare, to venture 
Dare, to challenge is r 
Deal 
Dig 

Do mis- un- 
Draw 
Drive 
Drink 
Dwell 
Eat 

Fall ft*. 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 



Imperfect, 

bereft r 

besought 

bade, bid 

bound 

bit 

bled 

blew 

broke, brake 

bred 

brought 

built, r 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught r 

chid 

chose 

clave r 

clove or cleft 

clung 

clothed 

came 

cost 

crew r 

crept 

cut 

durst 

dared 

dealt r 

dug R 

did 

drew 

drove 

drank 

dwelt r 

ate 

fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 



Perfect Participle* 
bereft r 
besought 
bidden 
bound 
bitten, bit 
bled 
blown 
broken 
bred 
brought 
built, r 
burst 
bought 
cast 

caught r 
chidden, chid 
chosen 
cleaved 
cloven or cleft 
clung 
clad r 
come 
cost 
crowed 
crept 
cut 
dared 
dared 
dealt r 
dugR 
done 
drawn 
driven 
drunk 
dwelt r 
eaten 
fallen 
fed 
felt 
fought 



62 



ENGLISH GRAMMAEo 



§32. 



Present. 


Imperfect 


Perfect Participle. 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborn 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be- for- 


gat or got 


gotten or got 


Gild 


giltR 


giltR 


Gird be- en- 


girt r 


girtR 


Give for- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- r 


graved 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove r 


hoven r 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold be- with" 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knitR 


knit or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie doion 


lay 


lain or lien 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden r 






* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, The robber was hang 
ed, but tne gown was hung up. 



§32. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



63 



Imperfect 


Perfect Participle* 


lost 


lost 


made 


made 


meant 


meant 


met 


met 


mowed 


mown r 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


quit r 


quit 


read 


read 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


rang or rung 


rung 


rose 


risen 


rived 


riven 


rotted 


rotten r 


ran 


run 


sawed 


sawn r 


said 


said 


saw 


seen 


sought 


sought 


sold 


sold 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


shook 


shaken 


shaped 


shapen r 


shaved 


shaven r 


shore r 


shorn 


shed 


shed 


shone r 


shone r 


showed 


shown 


shod 


shod 


shot 


shot 


shrank or shrunk 


shrunk 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


sang or sung 


sung 


sank or sunk 


sunk 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

f Shew*, shewed, shewn, — pronounced shew, &c. See foot of next page. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§32. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle* 


Sit 


sat 


sat or sitten* 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, slung 


slung 


Slink 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow- 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak be- 


spoke or spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend mis* 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


span, spun 


spun 


Spit fa- 


spat, spit 


spit or spitten 


Split 


split R 


split R 


Spread fa- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


Stand with- &c 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride fa- 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strewf fa- 


strewed 


strewed or 


Strow fa- 


strowed 


strovvn, strowed 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swang or swung 


swung 


Take be- &c. 


took 


taken 


Teach mis- re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear wn- 


tore or tare 


torn 



* Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete, though preferable to sat and spit. 
t Strew and shew are now giving way to straw and show, as they are /*»©- 
nounced. 



$ 32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen R 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought r 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung r 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



65 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

2. Defective verbs are those which want some 
of their moods and tenses. They are also irregular, 
and chiefly auxiliary : these are, 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. Part. 



Can 

May 

Must 

Ought 

duoth 



could 
might 



quoth 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Shall 


should 


Will 


would 


Wis 


wist 


Wit or j 
Wot < 


► wot 



Perf. Part. 



Obs. Ought was originally the past tense of the verb to ovje. It is 
now used to signify present duty, as must is used to signify present 
obligation or necessity ; as, " Speaking things which they ought not." 
When applied to what is past, the past time is noted by the preterite 
of the subsequent verb; thus, "These things ought ye to have done." 
Will, as an auxiliary, is inflexible in the third person singular ; as, he 
will go. The second person singular has wilt. It is sometimes used 
as a principal verb ; as, he ivills to go. Wis, wist, which signifies " to 
think," or " to imagine," is now obsolete. Wit is now confined to the 
phrase to wit, or namely. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

3. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the 

7* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. § 83, 

existence of some action or state, but refer it to no 
particular subject. They are preceded by the pro- 
noun it, and are always in the third person singu- 
lar. To this head may be referred such expressions 
as. It hails, it snoios, it rains, it thunders, it be* 
hoveth, it irketh ; and perhaps also, methinks, me- 
thought, meseems, meseemed, in which, instead of 
it, the first personal pronoun in the objective case ? 
me, is prefixed to the third person singular of the 
verb, 

QUESTIONS ON IRREGULAR DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

What is an irregular verb ? Are there any verbs which are both 
regular and irregular? Give an example. What are defective verbs ? 
Are they chiefly regular or irregular ? Name the principal defective 
verbs. What was ought originally ? How is it now used ? What 
are impersonal verbs ? In what person are they always used ? Give 
an example. What kind of a verb is methinks, methought, &c. ? 

EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Name the Imperfect tense and Perfect participle of — 
Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give* 
go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, 
pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, 
smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, tear. 

§ 33. VI. OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some 
circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann speaks distinct- 
ly ; she is remarkably diligent, and reads very cor- 
rectly. 



§ 84. ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to their 
signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 

t. Quality or Manner simply; as, well, ill, bravely, prudently 
softly ; with innumerable others, formed from adjectives by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; thus, tame, tamely ; sensible, sensibly, &c. 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where, — hither, thither, whither. — Hence, 
thence, whence, — somewhere, nowhere, whithersoever, &c. — separate- 
ly, asunder. 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when ; soon, often, seldom ; ever, never, 
while, whilst ; already, still, yet, since, ago ; once, twice, thrice ; 
again, hereafter, hitherto ; yesterday, to-day, to-morrow ; lately, pre- 
sently, by and bye, &c. 

4. Direction ; as, upward, downward, backward, forward, hea- 
venward, homeward, hitherward, thitherward, whitherward, &c. 

5. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise. 

6. Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes, cer- 
tainly, indeed, doubtless, &c. 

7. Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 

8. Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, wherefore, where, whi- 
ther, whence. 

9. Comparison; as, more, most, less, least ; well, better, best ; as, 
so, thus, very, rather, exceedingly, extremely, almost, nearly. 

10. Quantity ; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 

11. Number; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. formed from the or- 
dinal numeral adjective, (§ 13, Obs. 9,) by adding ly. 

§ 34. OBSERVATIONS ON ADVERBS. 

1. The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by expressing 
in one word what would otherwise require two or more ; as, here, 
for " in this place ;" nobly, for u in a noble manner," &c. 

2. Adverbs of quality, and a few others, admit of comparison like 
adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; nobly, more nobly, most no- 
bly.- A few are compared irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; badly, 
or ill, worse, worst. 

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies at, 
or on; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reckoned 
adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb ; the cor- 
responding as and so are conjunctions ; thus, It is as high as Heaven. 

5. The compounds of here, there, where; and hither, thither, 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 34. 

whither, are all adverbs ; except therefore and wherefore, which are 
sometimes conjunctions. 

6. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as 
other parts of speech j thus, 

Much is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, It is much better to give than to 
to receive. 

2. As an adjective ; as, In much wisdom is muck 

grief. 

3. As a noun ; as, where much is given much is re- 
quired. 

Yesterday is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, He came yesterday, 
2. As a noun ; as, Yesterday is past. 

Before is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, He came before the door was 
opened. 

2. As a preposition ; as, He stood before the door. 

7. Circumstances of time, place, manner, &c. are often expressed 
by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase ; as, in short, 
in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not at all, by no means, 
in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to and fro, &c. which, taken 
together, may be parsed as adverbs, or by supplying the ellipsis ; thus, 
in a short space ; in a general way, &c. 

Exercises on Adverbs, Irregular Verbs, &c. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went away 
yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy 
some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sung 
sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up 
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep, 
Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He 
is a very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You 
read too little. They talk too much. James acted wise- 
ly. How many lines can you repeat? You ran hastily. 
He speaks fluently. Then were they glad. He fell fast 
asleep. She should not hold her head awry. The ship 
was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all alike. 
Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener you read 
with attention, the more you will improve. 



$35. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



69 



§ 35. VII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 
A Preposition is a word which expresses the 
relation in which a substantive (noun or pronoun) 
stands to a verb, or to another substantive in the 
same sentence ; as, " Before honour is humility ;" 
They speak concerning virtue. 

Words of this class are called prepositions, because they are usual 
lv placed before the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. 

A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
To be got accurately by heart. 



About 


Before 


From 


Through 


Above 


Behind 


In 


Throughout 


According to Below 


Into 


Till 


Across 


Beneath 


Instead of 


To 


After 


Beside 


Near 


Touching 


Against 


Besides 


Nigh 


Towards 


Along 


Between 


Of 


Under 


Amid ) 
Amidst y 


Betwixt 


Off 


Underneath 


Beyond 


On 


Unto 


Among ) 


By 


Over 


Up 


Amongst ) 


Concerning 


Out of 


Upon 


Around 


Down 


Past 


With 


Aslant 


During 


Regarding 


Within 


At 


Except 


Respecting 


Without 


Athwart 


Excepting 


Round 




Bating 


For 


Since 





OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires an objective case after it. — When a 
preposition does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb ; 
as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold out, fall on, 
the words up, out, on, must be considered as a part of the verbs, rather 
than as prepositions or adverbs. 

2. Certain words are used sometimes as prepositions, and some- 
times as adverbs ; as, till, until, after, before, &c. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 36, 

3. Some words in the above list of prepositions might, perhaps with- 
out improprietv, be classed with adverbs ; as, near, nigh, &c., and the 
objective case which follows them, be governed by a preposition under- 
stood ; as, near the house, i. e. near to the house. — " Off the table," 
i. e. off from the table. 

4. Inseparable Prepositions are certain particles never found by them- 
selves, but always in composition with another word. Those purely 
English are, a, be, fore, mis, nn. 

EXERCISES CONTAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
Fie went to town. His father resides in the country. 
He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street. 
They divided the inheritance among them. All rivers flow 
into the ocean. He was travelling towards Rome when 
they met him at Milan, without a single attendant. The 
coach was upset between Bristol and London on Wednes- 
day last. 

§ 36. VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word which joins words and 
sentences together ; as, You and I must study, but 
he may go and play. Two and two make four. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Copulative-— Also, and, because, both, for, if, 
since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive — Although, as, as well as, but, 
either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, or, 
provided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, still. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
It will be seen from the above list that the same word varies in its 
character according to its application : e. g. both, either, neither, whether, 
are sometimes adjective pronouns and sometimes conjunctions; that 
is sometimes an adjective pronoun, sometimes a relative pronoun, 
(§ 18, 3, obs. 2,) as well as a conjunction ; for, save, except, are some- 






$ 37, 38. ETYMOLOGY. 71 

times prepositions ; since and but are sometimes conjunctions, some- 
times prepositions, and sometimes adverbs; thus, "since (conj.) we 
must part, let us do it peaceably ; " "I have not seen him since (prep.) 
that time ; " " Our friendship commenced long since " (adv.) ; " He is 
poor but honest" (conj.) ; " All but one " (prep.) ; " He has but just 
enough." (adv.) 

§ 37. IX. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker ; as, Oh ! what a sight is 
here ! Well done ! 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! 
hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! hush ! 
huzza ! hist ! hey-dey ! lo ! O ! Oh ! O strange ! 
O brave ! pshaw ! see ! well-a-day, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Many words denominated interjections, are in fact nouns or verbs, 
employed in the rapidity of thought and expression, occasioned by 
strong emotion, to denote what would otherwise require more words 
to express ; as Adieu I for " I commend you to God ; " Strange ! for 
"that is strange;" Welcome! for "you are welcome;" and hence 
any word or phrase may become an interjection, or be used as such, 
when it is expressed with emotion, and in an unconnected manner ; 
as, What! Ungrateful creature ! Shocking! 

2. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be pre- 
fixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " O virtue ! 
How amiable thou art." Oh I is used detached from the word, with a 
point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or 
surprize ; as, " Oh ! what a sight is here.'' 

§38. ON PARSING. 
Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech. 
Accuracy and espertness in this exercise is an important acquisition* 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 38. 

and cannot be fully acquired without a knowledge of the rules of syn- 
tax. At the same time, in order to study the rules of syntax with ad- 
vantage, and especially to be able readily to correct the exercises in 
false syntax, under each rule, considerable proficiency in parsing is 
necessary. The pupil must be able at once to distinguish the differ- 
ent parts of speech from each other, and to tell the different cases 
moods, tenses, &e. in which a word is found, and to change it readily 
into any other that may be required. 

In proceeding to parse a sentence it is necessary for the pupil in the 
first place to understand it. When he understands a sentence, and 
also the definition of the different parts of speech given in the gram- 
mar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them 
each word belongs ; i. e. which of the words are " names of things," 
or nouns ; which " express the quality of things," or, " affirm any thing 
concerning them," that is to say, which words are adjectives, and 
which are verbs. This method will exercise the discriminating pow- 
ers of the pupil better, engage his attention much more ; and on trial 
be found much more easy and certain, than that of consulting his dic- 
tionary on every occasion — a plan always laborious, often unsatisfac • 
tory, and which, instead of leading him to exercise his own powers, 
and depend on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish 
dependence on the authority of others. 

The following General principles should be remembered, and stea- 
dily kept in view in parsing every sentence, viz : 

1. Every adjective expresses the quality of some 
noun or pronoun expressed or understood. 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e. the thing spoken 
of, is always in the nominative, and is said to be the 
" nominative to the verb." 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, 
is the subject of a verb, expressed or understood, i. e. 
it is that of which the verb affirms. To this there 
are a few exceptions. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or 
subjunctive mood has a nominative or subject ex- 
pressed or understood,!, e. it has something of which 
it affirms. 



$ 39. ETYMOLOGY. 73 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and 
every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case ; and every objective case is governed 
by an active transitive verb, or preposition. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 
by a verb or adjective. Sometimes by a noun ; and 
sometimes it stands after the conjunction, than or as. 
See § 67. 

* § 39. SPECIMENS OF PARSING.* 
" Truth and candor possess a powerful charm." 

Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the young 
pupil by such questions as the following, viz : What is spoken of in 
this sentence ? Truth and candor. What is said of them ? They 
possess something. What do they possess? A charm. What sort 
of a charm do they possess ? A powerful charm. The sentence be- 
ing understood, may be parsed briefly thus : 

" Truth," A noun, neuter, singular, the nominative. 

"And," A conjunction, connecting "truth" with 
" candor." 

"Candor," A noun, neuter, singular, the nomina- 
tive. 

" Possess," A verb transitive, present, indicative, ac- 
tive, — third person, plural. 

u A," The indefinite article. 

" Powerful,' 5 An adjective, positive degree, quali- 
fying u charm," compared by more and 
most ; as, more powerful, most powerful. 

* In parsing, the pupil should be required to state every thing belonging 
to the etymology of each word in as few words as possible, and without 
waiting to have every thing drawn from him by questions from his teacher ; 
this will save much time and unnecessary labor. It will also contribute 
much to order and precision, to have every thing respecting each part of 
speech expressed always in the same order and in the same language. The 
following specimens are given as an example 

-8 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §39 

"Charm/' a noun, neuter, singular, the objective. 

Note. — It will also be a profitable exercise to require a reason for every thing 
stated in parsing a word, as for example, Why do you say that " Truth" is a noun 1 
is neuter ?— singular 1 — the nominative 1 To which questions it may be answered, 
Because it is the name of a thing — is without sex— denotes but one, and (together 
with candor) is the subject or nominative of the verb " possess ;" or, is the 
thing spoken of. See note § 12. This exercise should be continued till the pu- 
pil is able to answer all such questions on any of the parts of speech promptly 
and intelligently. 

All the parts of speech are contained in the fol- 
lowing stanza. The words in the parentheses may 
be omitted till the pupil has got the rules of Syntax. 

O how stupendous was the power 
That raised me with a word ; 

And every day, and every hour, 
I lean upon the Lord. 

0, an interjection — hoiv, an adverb — stupendous, an adjective, in 
the positive degree, compared by more and most; as stupendous, 
more stupendous, most stupendous, — ivas, a verb intr., third person 
singular, imperfect, indicative, (agreeing with its nominative pave? 
here put after it) — the, an article, the definite, — power, a noun, neuter, 
singular, the nominative,— That, a relative pronoun, neuter, singular, 
the nominative, here used for which: its antecedent is power — raised, 
a verb, trans, imperf., indie, active, third person, singular, (agreeing 
with its nominative that) — me, the first personal pronoun, masculine, 
or feminine, singular, the objective, (governed by raised) — with, a pre- 
position— «, an article, the indefinite — word, a noun, neuter, singular, 
the objective (governed by with) — Jlnd, a conjunction — every, a dis- 
tributive pronoun — day, a noun, neuter, singular, the objective, (be- 
cause the preposition through or diiring, is^ understood, or, obj 
restrictive § 50.)- hour, a noun, neuter, singular, the objective (because 
day was in it, and conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns, &c.) 
/, the first personal pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, the no- 
minative — lean, a verb intr., first person singular, present, indica- 
tive — upon, a preposition — the, an article, the definite — Lord, a noun, 
masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by upon.) 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 75 

§ 40. EXERCISES IN PARSING.* 

Rule 1. Two or more adjectives following each other, either with 01 
without a conjunction, qualify the sameiuord; as, 

A wise and faithful servant will always study his mas- 
ter's interest. A dismal, dense, and portentous cloud 
overhangs the city. A steady, sweet, and cheerful tem- 
per affords great delight to its possessor. He has bought 
a fine new coat. A sober and virtuous course of conduct 
generally leads to happiness. Virtuous youth brings forth 
accomplished and flourishing manhood. She had the ad- 
vantage of a regular and polite education. 

Rule 2. When an adjective precedes hvo nouns, it generally quali- 
fies them both : as, 

They waited for a fit time and place. I am delighted 
with the sight of green woods and fields. He displayed 
great prudence and moderation. He was a man of great 
wisdom and moderation. Guard against rash temper and 
conduct. They shewed sincere respect and esteem for 
their friends. 

Rule 3. When an adjective comes after a verb intrans., it generally 
qualifies the nominative of that verb ; as, 

John is wise. They were temperate. The sky is very 
clear. These rivers are deep and rapid. The apples will 
soon be ripe. We have been attentive to our lessons. 
These mountains are very high. The sea is tempestuous. 
Our friends should be dear to us. His behaviour was en- 
tirely inconsistent. The Supreme being is wise and good. 
Their pictures and books are valuable. John's schemes 
were absurd. 

Rule 4. Whatever loords the verb to be serves to unite referring to 
the same thing, must be of the same case ; § 61, as, 

Alexander is a student. Mary is a beautiful painter. 
Hope is the balm of life. Content is a great blessing, 
envy a great curse. Knowledge is power. His meat was 
locusts and wild honey. He was the life of the company. 

* The rules in this section are not intended to be committed to memory, but 
to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

She will be the delight of her friends. Milton is the prince 
of English poets. Shakspeare was a man of unbounded 
genius. Johnson was a powerful writer. Contentment is 
great gain. He might be a most happy man. I under- 
stood it to be him. I took it to be them." I supposed it to 
have been them. — They imagined it to .be me. 

Note— It is necessary to the application of this mle, that the words connected 
refer to the same thing. This connexion is often made by other words than the 
verb to be.— See § 61, Rem 1. 

Rule 5. Nouns and pronouns succeeding each other, and denoting the 
same object, are said to be in apposition, and always agree in case ; as, 

Alexander the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apos- 
tle Paul. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. 
Thomson, the author of the Seasons, is a delightful poet. 
Temperance, the best preserver of health, should be the 
study of all men. He greatly displeased his friend Cato. 
We received the orders from the Duke of Wellington, com- 
mander-in-chief. Religion and Virtue, our best support, 
and highest honour, confer on the mind principles of noble 
independence. 

Note. — In parsing such sentences as the above, a relative and a 
verb may be inserted between the words in apposition. Myself, thy- 
self, himself, &c, often stand at a considerable distance from the 
words with which they agree ; as, 

Thomas despatched the letter himself. They gathered 
the flowers in the garden themselves. Ann saw the trans- 
action herself, and could not be mistaken. 

Rule 6. Myself, thyself, himself, &c, often formthe objectives of ac- 
tive verbs, of which the words they represent are the subjects or nomina- 
tives. They are in such cases generally called Reflexive pronouns ; as, 

I" hurt myself. He wronged himself to oblige us. 
They will support themselves by their industry. She en- 
deavored to shew herself off to advantage. We must con- 
fine ourselves more to our studies. They hurt themselves 
by their great anxiety. 

Rule 7. Adjectives, taken as nouns, and used in reference to persons, 
are generally of the plural number ; as, 

The valiant never taste of death but once. The virtu- 
ous are generally the most happy. The diligent make 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 77 

most improvement. The sincere are always esteemed. 
The inquisitive are generally talkative. The dissipated 
are much to be pitied. The company of the profane 
should be carefully avoided. The temperate are generally 
the most healthy. 

Rule 8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in the same connexion, musi 
he of the same case; as, 

The master taught him and me to write. He and she 
were school-fellows. My brother and he are tolerable 
grammarians. He gave the book to John and Thomas. 
I lent my knife and pencil to one of the scholars. Peter 
and John gained the highest prizes. The snow and the 
ice have quite disappeared. Exercise and temperance 
are the best promoters of health. 

Rule 9. A relative generally precedes the verb that governs it; as, 

He is a friend whom I greatly respect. They whom 
luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of 
life. The books which I bought yesterday I have not yet 
received. The trees which he planted in the spring have 
all died. He has lost the friend whom he so much re- 
spected. He is a person whom all must admire. The 
lesson which we have finished, has not been difficult. 

Rule 10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb 
belonging to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to the first verb, 
and the antecedent to the second ; as, 

He who acts wisely deserves praise. He who is a 
stranger to industry, may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 
They who are born in high stations are not always the 
most happy. The" man who is faithfully attached to re- 
ligion, may be relied on with confidence. Those who ex- 
cite envy will easily incur censure. He that overcomes 
his passions, conquers his greatest enemies. 

Rule 11. What, being equal to that which, or the thing which, mai 
represent two cases, either both nominative or both objective; or, the one 
nominative and the other objective ; as, 

This is precisely what was necessary. What cannot be 
prevented, must be endured. We must not delay i\ 11 to- 
morrow, what ought to be done to-day. Choose what is 

8* 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40 

most fit ; custom will make it the most agreeable. Fool- 
ish men are more apt to consider what they have lost than 
what they possess. What he gained by diligence, he 
squandered by extravagance. 

Rule 12. Whoever and whosoever, used as relatives (§ 16, Obs. 
3,) generally have the antecedent implied, so that they seem to stand 
as the nominative to two verbs, or as at once the objective after a verb 
or preposition and the nominative of a succeeding verb. The so,me 
is the case with whatever and whatsoever ; as, 

Whoever told such a story, must have been misinformed. 
Whoever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly 
happy in the midst of plenty. Whoever passes his time in 
idleness, can make but little improvement. Whatever gives 
pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure. What- 
ever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 

Note. — Whatever is most frequently used, as ivhat sometimes is, 
(§16, Obs. 2.) simply to qualify a noun ; as, 

Aspire at perfection, in whatever state of life you may be 
placed. I forget what words he uttered. By what means 
shall we obtain wisdom. By whatever arts we may at- 
tract attention, we can secure esteem only by amiable dis- 
positions, 

Rule 13. Participles, though they never directly declare, yet always 
imply something either done or doing; and are used in reference to some 
noun or pronoun ; as, 

Admired and applauded, he became vain. Having 
finished our lessons, we went to play. Proceeding on his 
journey, he was seized with a dangerous malady. Being 
engaged at the time of my call, he had not a moment to 
spend with me. Having early disgraced himself, he be- 
came mean and dispirited. Knowing him to be my su- 
perior, I cheerfully submitted. 

Rule 14. The perfect participle of a few intr. verbs is sometimes 
ioined to the verb to be, which gives such verbs a passive appearance ; as, 

I am come, in compliance with your desire. If such 
maxims and practices prevail, what is become of decency 
and virtue ? The old house is at length fallen down. 
John is gone to London. 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 79 

Rule 15. Inlransitives are often followed by prepositions, making 
ivlutt are sometimes called compound trans, verbs. The verb and prepo- 
sition may in such cases be parsed, either together or separately in the 
active voice. In the passive voice they must be parsed together ; as, 

He laughed at such folly. They smiled upon us in such 
a way as to inspire courage. He struck at his friend with 
great violence. He was sadly laughed at for such con- 
duct. 

Rule 16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a pai^ticiple, without 
being connected in grammatical construction with any other ivords of the 
sentence. It is then called the 7iominative absolute ; as, 

The father being dead, the whole estate came into the 
hands of the eldest son. He destroyed, or won to what 
may work his utter loss, all this will soon follow. Whose 
gray top shall tremble, he descending. The house being 
built and finished, he was expected to take immediate 
possession. The sun rising, darkness flies away. Our 
work being finished, we will play. 

Rule 17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs bid, 
dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let ; and sometimes after perceive, 
behold, observe, have, know, &c. as. 

Let me look at your portrait. He bade me go with him. 
I heard him assert the opinion. I like to see you behave 
so well. Let him apply to his books, and then he will 
make improvement. Let us make all the haste in our 
power. I saw him ride past at great speed. I have ob- 
served some satirists use the term. 

Rule 18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the same 
mood and tense ; but in the compound tenses the sign is often used with 
the first only and understood with the rest; as, 

He can neither read nor write. He shall no longer 
tease and vex me as he has done. He commanded them 
that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the 
promise of the father. His diligence should have been 
commended and rewarded. Every mind, in its present 
state, is obliged to receive information, and execute its pur- 
poses, by the intervention of the body. Fame cannot 
spread wide, or endure long, that is not rooted in nature, 
and matured bv art. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40, 

Rule 19. Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, 
are often governed by prepositions understood ; or are used to restrict 
verbs or adjectives without a governing word, § 50. Rem. 6 and Rule ; as, 

He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 
Will you lend me your knife. It is not time yet to go home. 
He returned home at a very inconvenient season. He tra- 
velled last summer as far as London on foot. He was in 
Paris last month. He visited Rome last year in the spring. 
They remained twenty-four days at Naples, and walked 
twelve miles each day. I sent him the despatches some 
time ago. 

Rule 20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, 
have the same case after them as before them; and the latter case has the 
same construction as the former ; as, 

He has more books than my brother (has.) Mary is 
not so handsome as her sister (is.) They respect him 
more than (they respect) us, James is not so diligent 
as Thomas. They are much greater gainers than I by 
this unexpected event. Though she is not so learned as 
he, she is as much beloved and respected. These people 
are not so proud as he, nor so vain as she. 

Rule 21. The class of words or part of speech to which a toord 
belongs, depends often on Us application ; as, 

Calm was the day and the scene delightful. We may 
expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is 
easier than to calm it. Better is a little with content, than 
a great deal with anxiety. The gay and dissolute think 
little of the miseries which are stealing softly after them. 
A little attention will rectify some errors. Though he 
is out of danger he is still afraid. He laboured to still 
the tumult. Still waters are commonly deepest. Damp 
air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our 
sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much 
more than hard ones. Though she is rich and fair, yet 
she is not amiable. They are young, and must suspend 
their judgment yet a while. Many persons are better 
than we suppose them to be. The few and the many 
have their prepossessions. Few days pass without some 
clouds. Much money is corrupting. Think much and 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 8] 

speak little. lie has seen much of the world and been 
much caressed. His years are more than hers, but he 
has not more knowledge. The more we are blessed the 
more grateful we should be. The desire of getting more 
is rarely satisfied. He has equal knowledge, but in- 
ferior judgment. She is his inferior in sense but his 
equal in prudence. 

R,ule 22. Do, have and be, are principal verbs when used by them 
selves, but auxiliaries when connected with ether verbs ; as, 

He does all in his power to gain esteem. He did his 
utmost to please his friend. We must do nothing that 
will sully our reputation. She has a strong claim to our 
respect. They had not the slightest intention to wound 
0our feelings. The man who has no sense of religion is 
little to be trusted. He who does the most good has the 
most pleasure. They were not in the most prosperous 
circumstances when we last saw them. He does not 
write so well as he reads. We did not stay with him 
above a month. True wisdom does not inspire pride. 
The butler did not remember Joseph. Did he send the 
book, as he was desired ? Do they make much pro- 
gress in their studies ? Have they ascertained the person 
who gave the information? They had not determined 
what course to take. We are surprised at the news. 

Rule 23. Jin infinitive, a participle, or a member of a sentence, which 
may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative to a verb, or 
the objective after a trans, verb or preposition ; as, 

1. Nominative. To study hard is the best way to improve. 
To endure misfortune with resignation is the characte- 
ristic of a great mind. To advise the ignorant, relieve 
the needy and comfort the distressed, are duties incum- 
bent on all. John's being from home occasioned the delay. 
His having neglected opportunities of improvement, was 
the cause of his disgrace. The implanting of right 
principles in the breast of the young, is important both to 
themselves and to society. The assisting of a friend in 
such circumstances was certainly a duty. 

2. Objective. He that knows how to do good and does 
it not, is without excuse. He will regret his having ne- 



to. 

oo 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

glected opportunities of improvement when it may be too 
late. He declared that nothing could give him greater 
pleasure. Of making many books there is no end. You 
will never repent of having done your duty. 

Obs. 1. When a substantive phrase is governed by a verb or prepo- 
sition, this regimen does not affect the case of individual nouns or pro- 
nouns in that phrase, but leaves them subject to the influence of other 
words within the phrase itself. 

Obs. 2. In sentences of this kind, the infinitive mood and participle 
are often used for the name of the action, or state, or affection express- 
ed by the verb ; as, " To profess (professing) regard, and to act (acting) 
differently, mark a base mind." Here it is to be observed that the 
infinitive and participle are really abstract nouns perfectly indefinite in 
their application, there being no particular subject to which the action 
may be referred. 

If the infinitive or participle of the verb to be y or of a passive verb of 
naming, &c. (§ 61, R. 1.) is used in this way without a definite sub-, 
ject, the substantive which follows it as a predicate receives the same 
indefinite character ; it is neither the subject of a verb nor is under 
the regimen of any word ; Thus, "His being an expert dancer does 
not entitle him to our regard." This will be allowed to be a correct 
English sentence, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be 
supplied. The phrase, " being an expert dancer" is the subject of the 
verb, " does entitle ;" but the word " dancer" in that phrase is neither 
the subject of any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence. 
Of this kind are all such expressions as the following : "It is an ho- 
nour to be the author of such a work." " To be virtuous is to be hap- 
py." "To be surety for a stranger is dangerous." "Not to know 
what happened before you were born, is to be always a child." " The 
atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to pdl- 
liate or deny." (Pitt.) " He was not sure of its being me." "Its being 
me needs make no difference in your determination." 

If the last two examples are correct, they shew that whether the 
phrase is the nominative or objective, i. e. whether it is the subject of a 
verb or is governed by a trans, verb or preposition ; the word fol- 
lowing the infinitive or participle as a predicate is properly in the ob- 
jective case,* and in parsing, may correctly be called the objective in- 

* This corresponds to the Latin and Greek idiom in such sentences as the 
following : " Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse puc~ 
rum." — Not to know what happened in past years, is to be always a child— 



§41. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 



definite. Or the whole phrase may be parsed as one word. (§ 61, Rem. 
2.) The following are also examples. 

He had the honour of being a director for life. By be- 
ing a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his 
profession. Many benefits result to men from being wise 
and temperate (men.) 

Rule 24. It, often refers to persons, (§ 15, Obs. 5,) or to an infini- 
tive coining after; as, 

It is John that is to blame. It was I that wrote the let- 
ter. It is the duty of all to improve. It is the business 
of every man to prepare for death. It was reserved for 
Newton to discover the law of gravitation. It is easy to 
form good resolutions, but difficult to put them in practice. 
It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their pa- 
rents. 

Rule 25. Words, especially in poetry, are often much transposed ; as, 
Great is Diana of the Ephesians. On yourself depend 
for aid. Happy the man who puts his trust in his maker. 
Of night the gloom was dark and dense. 

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 

A transient calm the happy scenes bestow 

When first thy sire to send on earth 

Virtue, his darling child, designed. 

On flattering appearances put no reliance. 

He with viny crown advancing, 

First to the lively pipe his hand addressed. 

Grieved though thou art, forbear the rash design. 

Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 

Orion's dog, the year when Autumn weighs. 

§ 41. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The world was made by a Supreme Being. He who 
made it now preserves and governs it. Nothing happens 
without his permission. He sees all our actions and hears 

can T&v aiaxp&v • • . tottojv, oiv rjpiv irore Kvpioi cpaivsaBai TTpoiSf/Bvovs* 
14 It is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters." 
—Demosthenes, 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 41. 

all our words. The thoughts of the heart are known to 
him. In him we live, he gave us life, and without him we 
cannot breathe. Wherever we are, God is with us. 
When we sit in the house God is there ; and when we 
walk by the way, he is at our right hand. He is a spirit, 
and fills heaven and earth with his presence. 

Demosthenes, who was born at Athens, was a very fa- 
mous orator. He acquired the art of speaking by great 
labor and study. By nature he had not a good voice, 
and could not rightly pronounce some words. That he 
might learn to speak distinctly, he put small round peb- 
bles in his mouth while he spoke, in order to cure his de- 
fect. He used to shut himself up in his chamber, and to 
study a whole month together. He often went to the 
shore, and pronounced his orations to the waves, that he 
might be better able to endure the noise and clamor of 
the people. He made many orations both on private 
and public occasions. But he used his eloquence chiefly 
against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several orations, 
he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him. 

The mimic thrush, or mocking bird, is about the size of 
a blackbird, but somewhat more slender. The plumage is 
grey, but paler on the under parts than above. 

It is common in some parts of America and in Jamaica ; 
but changes its place in summer, being then seen much 
more to the northward than in winter. It cannot vie with 
ihe feathered inhabitants of those countries in brilliancy of 
plumage ; but is content with much more rare and estima- 
ble qualities. It possesses not only natural notes of its 
own, which are truly musical and solemn, but it can at plea- 
sure assume the tone of every other animal in the forest, 
from the humming bird to the eagle, descending even to 
the wolf or raven. One of them confined in a cage has been 
heard to mimic the chattering of a magpie, and the creak- 
ing of the hinges of a sign-post in high winds. 

This capricious little mimic seems to have a singular 
pleasure in archly leading other birds astray. He is said 
at one time to allure the smaller birds with the call of theii 
mates ; and when these come near, to terrify them with the 
scream of the eagle. There is scarcely a bird of the fo- 
rest, that is not at some time deceived by his call. 



§ 41. ETYMOLOGY, 95 

THE POPLAR FIELD. 
The poplars are fell'd, farewell to the shade, 
And the whispering sound of the cool colonade, 
The winds play no longer and sing in the leaves, 
Nor Ouse in his bosom their image receives. 
Twelve years have elapsed since I last took a view 
Of my favorite field, and the bank where they grew ; 
And now in the grass, behold they are laid, 
And the tree is my seat, that once lent me shade. 
The blackbird has fled to another retreat, 
Where the hazels afford him a screen from the heat j 
And the scene, where his melody charmed me before, 
Resounds with his sweet-flowing ditty no more. 
My fugitive years are all hastening away, 
And I must ere long lie as lowly as they, 
With a turf on my breast, and a stone at my head, 
Ere another such grove shall arise in its stead. 

J\Tcte. — For additional exercises in parsing, any simple correct writer may be 
used by those who are less advanced ; and forthe more advanced student nothing 
better can be supplied than Pope's Essay on Man or Milton's Paradise Lost. 

9 



PART III. 

§43. SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats oJ 
the proper arrangement and connexion of words in a 
sentence. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but 
not making complete sense : as, In truth ; To be 'plain with 
you. 

Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

A Simple sentence contains but one subject and one 
finite* verb ; as, Life is short. 

A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences combined ; as, Life, which is short, should he well 
employed. 

Every simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts, the sub- 
ject and the predicate. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. In English it is always 
the nominative to the verb. 

The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject. It is 
either contained in the verb itself, as. "John reads," or it follows the 
v T erb to be, or some other verb of like import, which in this case is 
called the copula; as, " Time is short." "They became poor" It the 
predicate contains an active verb, the object of the action expressed by 
it follows in the objective case. Neuter verbs have no object. 

The subject or nominative, the verb and the object, may each be 
attended by other words called adjuncts, which serve to modify or re- 
strict the meaning of the word with which they stand connected ; as, 

* A finite verb is a verb restricted by person and number. All verbs are finite 
m the indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, and Imperative ; but not in the Infini- 
tive and Participles. 



§ 44, 45. syntax. 87 

"An inordinate desire of admiration often produces a contemptible 
levity of deportment." 

When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is sus- 
pended till the whole be finished, it is called a Period ; otherwise the 
sentence is said to be loose. 

§44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a vero and a nomi- 
native (or subject) expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par- 
ticiple, must have a substantive expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or un- 
derstood. 

4. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) 
has its own nominative expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by some nour 
denoting the thing possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by an active verl 
or preposition. 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an ad 
jective or substantive. 

Obs. The exceptions to these general principles w r ill appear in th 
Rules of Syntax. 

§ 45. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three 
heads, Concord, Government and Position. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with an* 
other in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one word has in direct- 
ing the mood, tense, or case of another word. 

Position means the place which a word occupies in a 
sentence. 

in the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean- 
ing of a sentence depends much on the position of the words which 
»t contains. 



! 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 46. 

§ 46. Rule I. A Verb must agree with its no- 
minative in number and person ; as, Thou readest. 
He reads. We read. 

Note 1. The nominative to a verb is known by putting the question Who ? or, 
What ? with the verb. The answer to the question will be the nominative ; as, 
" / read." Who reads 1 Aus. /. 

Note 2. Under this rule the General Principles § 44, 3, 4, must be carefully ob- t . 
served. For, as follows, as concerns, as appears, &c. See § 86, 3. 

EXERCISES. 

I loves reading, A soft answer turn away wrath. We 
is but of yesterday and know nothing. The days of man 
is but as grass. Thou sees how little has been done. He 
need not proceed in such haste. He dare not act other- 
wise. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of 
flour. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. Sc 
much both of ability and merit are seldom found. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons^ A judici- 
ous arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. A few 
pangs of conscience now and then interrupts his pleasure, 
and whispers to him that he once had better thoughts. 
There was more impostors than one. What signifies good 
opinions when our practice is bad ? To these precepts 
are subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims. 
In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

The number of our days are with thee. There remains 
two points to be considered. There is in fact no imper- 
sonal verbs in any language. I have considered what have 
been said on both sides. Great pains has been taken to 
make this work as useful as possible. In piety and vir- 
tue consist the happiness of man. You was not at home 
when the servant called. Thomas where wast you when I 
called. § 15, Obs. 4. 

In order to exercise the judgment of the pupil, as well as to shew that he under- 
stands the rule, he may be required to assign a reason for the changes made in 
correcting the exercises under this and the following rules. If well versed in 
parsing, this may be done without loss of time, even in a large class, by directing 
him to state the reason always, without waiting to be asked for it. Thus in the 
above exercises, " Loves" should be " love," because " J" is the 1st pers. sing. 
"Turn" should be " turns," because " answer" is the 3d pers. sing. &c. 



I 



$ 47. SYNTAX. 89 

§ 47. Special rules and observations under rule 1. 

Rule I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative; as, He 
and she are of the same age ; not. Him and her. 

Rule II. The Infinitive mood or part of a sentence is often used as 
the nominative to a verb ; as, To play is pleasant ; His being at enmity 
with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord. 

Rule III. A noun singular used for a plural is joined to a plural 
verb ; as, Ten sail of *he line were seen at a distance. (§ 10, 4 note.) 

Note. Nouns plural in form but singular in signification, may be joined either 
With a singular or plural verb. $ 10, 5. 

Rule IV. A noun and its pronoun should never be used as a nomina- 
tive to the same verb ; as, The king is just ; not, the king he is jusi. 
Except that hinpself herself &e. are joined with a noun or pronoun 
rendering it emphatic. § 15, Obs. 2. 

Rule V. When the verb to be stands between a singular and plural 
nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or the one which is more natur- 
ally the subject of it; as, The wages of sin is death. 

Exercises on preceding rules. 

I. Him and I are able to do it. You and us enjoy many 
privileges. I thought you and them had become friends. 
If you were here, you would find three or four, whom you 
would say pass their time very agreeably. Whom shall 
be sent to admonish him ? 

II. To live soberly, righteously and godly are required 
of all men. To do unto others as we would that they 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. 
A fondness for distinction often render a man ridiculous. 

III. Forty head of cattle was grazing in yonder mea- 
dow. Twelve* brace of pigeons was sold for a dollar. 
One pair were spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. 

IV. Simple and innocent pleasures they alone are dura- 
ble. My banks they are furnished with bees. This rule 
if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which has been offered 
up to him. John, he said so, and Thomas, he said so, and 
the rest of them, they all said so. Man that is born of a 
woman he is of few days and full of trouble. 

V. A great cause of the low state of industry was the 
restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and wild ho* 
ney. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. 

9* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 48* 

§ 48. Rule II. A transitive verb, in the active 
voice, governs the objective case ; as, We love him. 
He loves us. Who??i did they send ? 

Obs. An intransitive verb sometimes becomes transitive, (§ 21, 06s. 
2 } ) and governs the objective case of a noun of the same or kindred 
signification ; as, " Let us run the race." With this construction, may- 
be classed such expressions as the following : — " The brooks ran nec- 
tar." " The trees wept gums and balm." " Her lips blush deeper 
sweets." " They ascended the mountain." 

Remark 1. The participle, being a part of the verb, governs the same case. 

Rem. 2. When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it comes before the 
verb that governs it. § 40, R. 9. (Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary.) 

Rem. 3. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pre 
noun, may be the object of a transitive active verb ; as, Boys love to play ; I wish 
that they were wise. You see how few men have returned. 

Rem. 4. As substantives have no distinct form of the objective case, the ar 
rangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the other 
The nominative generally precedes the verb ; the objective follows it ; but 
when the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the verb 
and its nominative. The objective should not, if possible, be separated from 
its verb. 

EXERCISES. 

He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou 
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye only 
iiave I known. Let thou and I the battle try. He whc 
committed the offence, thou shouldst correct ; not I who 
im innocent. 

(R. 1.) Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. 
Upon seeing I, he turned pale. Having exposed his self 
to" the lire of the enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action. 

(R. 2.) The man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 
Who did they entertain so freely ? They are the persons 
who we ought to respect. Who having not seen, we love. 
They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, are not happy. Who do I love so much ? Who 
should I meet the other day but my old friend ? Who shall 
I pay for this service ? 

(R. 4.) Faulty Arrangement. — This is the man, he be- 
lieved, whom he would send on that business. Becket 
could not better discover, than by attacking so powerful an 
interest, his resolution to maintain his right. 



§ 49 SYNTAX. 91 

§ 49. Special Rules under Rule II. 

I. Intransitive verbs never have an objective case after them ; thus, 
" Repenting of him his design," should be " repenting of his design." 

II. Intransitive verbs do not admit of a passive voice, (§ 19. 5.) 
except the nominative be of the same, or kindred signification with 
the verb itself; as, My race is run, 

III. Transitive verbs do not admit of a preposition after them, thus, 
" I must premise with three circumstances," should be, " I must 
premise three circumstances." 

Obs. Verbs signifj'ing to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, allow, de- 
ny, and some others, sometimes in colloquial language have an objective 
case after the passive voice ; as, I was taught Grammar* This may also 
be expressed actively; as, He taught (to) me Grammar; or passively, 
Grammar was taught (to) me. 

IV. A noun and its pronoun should not be used as the objective after 
the same verb, or preposition. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king found reason to repent him of such dan 
gerous enemies. They did not fail to enlarge themselves 
on the subject. Go flee thee away into the land of Ju- 
dea. It will be difficult to agree his conduct with the 
principles he professes. " Then having showed his 
wounds, he'd sit him down." 

II. This person was entered into a conspiracy against 
his master. Fifty men are deserted from the army. 
The influence of this corrupt example was then entirely 
ceased. My father was returned yesterday. 

III. I shall premise with two or three general observa- 
tions. He ingratiates with some, by traducing others. 
We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. He 
will not allow of it. They shall not want for encourage- 
ment. The covetous man pursues after gain. 

(Obs.) Change the following sentences into the forms 
specified in the Obs. — A few questions were asked at the 
witness. A ship was promised to him in a few weeks. 
A pardon was offered (to) him. Great liberty was al- 
lowed (to) me. That was told (to) him some time ago. 
She would not accept the jewels, though they were of- 
fered to her by her mother. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 50. 

§ 50. Rule III. Prepositions govern the objec- 
tive case; as. To whom much is given, of him 
much shall be required. 

Remark 1. Prepositions should be placed before the words which they govern, 
and as near to them as possible ; but never before the relative that. 

Remark 2. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some 
distance after them; but this is at least inelegant, and should be avoided in com- 
position. 

Remark 3. The preposition, with its regimen, should be placed as near as 
possible to the word to which it is related. 

Remark 4. A preposition should never be used before the infinitive. 

Remark 5. It is generally inelegant and improper to connect a preposition and 
an active verb with the same word ; as, I wrote to, and warned him of his danger. 

Remark 6. The preposition is often omitted ; as, Give (to) me the book ; do it 
(in) your own way ; I wrote (to) you long ago ; like (unto) his father. Many 
cases of supposed ellipsis, however, may be better disposed of under the following 

Rule. A noun denoting time, place, price, iveight, or measure, is some- 
times used in the objective, ivilhout a governing w or d, to restrict the, mean- 
ing of a verb or adjective with lohich it stands connected ; as, He was ab- 
sent six months. — Let us go home. — It cost a penny, but it is not worth 
a. farthing. The parcel weighs a pound. The wall is six/eei high. 

This may be called the objective case restrictive. 

EXERCISES. 
To who will you give that pen ? Will you go with 
him and I? Withhold not good from they to who it is 
due. With who do you live ? Great friendship subsists 
between he and I. He laid the suspicion on somebody, 
I know not who, in the company. (Rem. 1.) Who do 
you speak to ? Who did they ride with ? It was not he 
that they were angry with. To have no one who we 
are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state. 2. It 
was not he that they were so angry with. The book 
which the story is printed in, is full of fiction. 3. The 
embarrassments of the artificers rendered the progress 
very slow of the work. Beyond this period, the arts 
cannot be traced of civil society. 4. What went ye out 
for to see ? Can you give me wax for to seal this letter ? 
He set out for to go home an hour ago. 5. He was 
afraid of, and wished to shun them. He claimed and 
insisted upon his rights. 6 Will you have the goodness 
to lend to me your grammar ? I will return it on to-mor- 
row 



■ ^ 51. SYNTAX. 98 

§ 51. Rule IV. Two or more nouns in the sin* 
gular, taken in connexion^ require a verb and pro- 
noun in the plural; as, 1. Cato and Cicero were 
learned men. and they loved their country. 2. Ho- 
nour, justice, religion itself, are derided by the profli- 
gate. 3. The king, with the lords and commons, 
constitute the English form of government. 

Observation 1. Nouns are viewed in connexion when they stand together as 
die nominative to the same verb, not separately, but combined, forming a plural 
subject, i. e. a subject consisting of more things than one. Sometimes they are 
joined by the conjunction "and" as in the first example; sometimes they are 
without a conjunction, as in the 2d ; and sometimes the connexion is formed by 
the preposition " with" as in the 3d. But in this case, the verb, &c. should be 
plural, only when the words connected by " with " essentially belong to the sub- 
ject. When not essentia!, but a mere accompaniment, the verb should be singu- 
lar ; as, the ship, with her cargo, was lost. 

Obs. 2. But when two names are used to represent one subject, the verb may 
be in the singular ; as, Why is dust and ashes proud. 

Obs. 3. When comparison is expressed or implied, and not combination, the 
verb should be singular ; as, Ca3sar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for elo- 
quence. 

EXERCISES, 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Wisdom, 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. An- 
ger, and impatience is always unreasonable. His polite- 
ness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, 
entirely changed. By whose power all good and evil is 
distributed. Luxurious living and high pleasures, begets 
a languor and satiety that destroys all enjoyment. Out of 
the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. Leisure 
of life and tranquillity of mind, which fortune and your own 
wisdom has given you, is capable of being better employed. 
Time and tide waits for no man. 

(Obs. 2.) That able scholar and critic have been emi- 
nently useful. Your friend and patron, whose name I have 
forgotten, have just now been enquiring for you. 

(Obs. 3.) I, as well as they, are entitled to redress. 
Perseverance, as well as talents and application, are neces- 
sary to eminence in literary pursuits. But he, as well as 
Lord Clive, have been harshly judged by men ? who have 
listened to their enemies. 



04 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 52. 

§ 52. Rule V. T^o or more nouns in the sin- 
gular, taken separately, have the verb or pronoun 
in the singular ; as, John, Jamss, or Andrew, in- 
tends to accompany you. 

Remar k— Nouns are viewed separately, when, though they all stand as the 
nominative to the verb, yet either one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject of 
discourse, as in the above example, or, though all are equally the subject of dis- 
course, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the 
verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest. 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, when the verb affirms, and more especially when 
it denies,- of the different nominatives, though they be disjoined by the conjunc- 
tion, it may be put in the plural ; as, Neither you nor I are in fault. This cor 
responds to the Latin construction, "Id neque ego neque tu fecimus." — Ter. 
Hec. — Crombie's English Syntax, p. 237. 

Separation is usually marked by the disjunctives or and nor, expressed or un- 
derstood', or by prefixing each or every. But each ?tnd every, subjoined distribu- 
tively to a plural subject, do not affect the verb ; as, They have conspired each 
to recommend the other. 

Rule. — Jl singular and a plural nominative, separated by a disjunc- 
tive, require a verb in the plural ; as, Neither the captain nor the sailors 
were saved. 

*** The plural nominative should be placed next the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Either the boy or the girl were present. It must be con- 
fessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them rob- 
bery or murder. The modest virgin, the prudent wife, or 
the careful matron, are much more serviceable in life than 
petticoated philosophers. Neither precept nor discipline 
are so forcible as example. Man is not such a machine 
as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are 
moved. Every man, woman, and child, were excluded. 
They, every one, pursues his destined course. Each of 
the seasons, as they revolve, give fresh proof of the Divine 
power and goodness. The seasons, each as it revolves, 
gives pleasure to the soul. Neither poverty nor riches was 
injurious to him. They or he was offended. Neither the 
king nor his ministers deserves to be praised. Whether 
one or more was concerned in the business, does not yet 
appear. An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure 
style, are always faults. Neither the captain, nor the pas- 
sengers, nor any of the crew, was saved. 



§ 53. SYNTAX. 95 

§ 53. Rule VI. 1. When two or more nomina- 
tives combined are of different persons, the verb and 
pronoun in the plural, prefer the first person to the 
second, and the second to the third ; as, He and / 
shared (first person) it between us, 

2. When nominatives of different persons are 
disjunctively connected, the verb in the singular 
agrees with the person next it ; as, Thou or he is 
the author of it. He or / am to blame. 

Rem. — In the order of arrangement in English, the second person is usually 
placed before the third, and the first person is always placed last. 

EXERCISES. 

1. James, and thou, and I, are attached to their coun- 
try. Thou, and the gardner, and the huntsman, must 
share the blame of this business amongst them. My sis- 
ter and I, as well as my brother, are daily employed in 
their respective occupations. While you are playing, my 
brother and I are attentive to their studies. You and I 
will devote your leisure hours to study. Both you and he 
will be disappointed in their object. 

2. Either thou or I art greatly mistaken. He or I is 
sure of this week's prize. Thomas or thou hast spilt the 
ink on my paper. John or I has done it. Thou or he 
art the person who must go on that business. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the ~Pi*eceding Rules. 

You was there. Was the horses ready. There are .a 
flock of geese. In the human species the influence of in- 
stinct and habit are generally assisted by the suggestions 
of reason. His having robbed several men were the cause 
of his punishment. Learning, how much soever it may be 
despised by some, yet men know it to be an acquirement 
of great value. He, not the ministers, control all things. 
These v e have extracted from a historian of great merit, 
and are the same that were formerly practised. His wis- 
dom and not his money produce esteem. The Cape of 
Good Hope, as well as many islands in the West Indies, 
are famous for hurricanes. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR^ § 54, 

§ 54. Rule VII. 1. When a collective noun con 
veys the idea of unity, its verb must he singular ; 
as, The class was large. 

2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of 
plurality, its verb must be plural ; as 7 My people 
do not consider. They have not known me. 

Rem. — Pronouns referring to collective nouns must in like manner be singular 
or plural, according as the idea of unity or plurality is expressed. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet- 
ing were well attended. The people has no opinion of 
its own. Send the multitude away, that it may go and 
buy itself bread. The people was very numerous. A 
company of troops were despatched to the opposite side 
of the river. The people rejoices in what should give 
them sorrow. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 
as its chief good. In France, the peasantry goes bare- 
foot, while the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes* 
The British parliament are composed of king, lords, and 
commons. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 
The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the 
object of the shepherd's care. When the nation com- 
plain, the rulers should listen to their voice. The regi- 
ment consist of a thousand men. Never were any na- 
tion so infatuated. But this people who knoweth not 
the law is cursed. The shoal of herrings were immense. 
Why do this generation seek after a sign ? The fleet 
were seen sailing up the channel. Mankind is more 
united by the bonds of friendship at present than it was 
formerly. Part of the coin were preserved. The royal 
society are numerous and flourishing. " The lowing 
herd wind slowly round the lea." The noble army of 
martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! The present generation 
possess far greater advantages than the preceding genera- 
tion of men ; they are more enlightened, and they ought 
to be more wise and virtuous. A great number of wo. 
men were present. The audience takes this in good part. 
All mankind composes one family. The public is re- 
spectfully informed. 



i 



§55. :/x 97 

§ 55. Rule VIII. 1 . Every adjective qualifies a 
substantive expressed or understood; as, A good 

b °y- 

2. Adjectives denoting one, must have nouns in the 
singular ; those denoting more than one, must have 
nouns in the plural; as, This man, these men, six feet. 
Obs. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs. The distinction 
is, adjectives qualify nouns ; adverbs modify verbs adjectives and 
other adverbs; thus, "He is miserable poor," should be, " he is miser- 
ably poor. 

Remark 1. Adjectives of number may be denominated singular or plural^ 
according as in their signification they refer to one, or more than one. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives joined with the singular, are the ordinal numbers, first, se- 
cond, last, &c ; one, each, every, either, neither, much, with its comparative 
more, enough, whole : see § 18, 2, Obs. 1. 

Still it is correct to say, the first four lines ; the last six verses ; every twelve 
years, &c, because the things spoken of are considered as one aggregate, viz. as 
the first portion consisting of four lines. Every period of twelve years, &c. 

Rem. 3. Adjectives joined with the plural only, are all cardinal numbers above 
one, the words few, many, with its comparative more, both, several, enow. 
Many is sometimes construed with a singular noun ; as, " Full many a flower," &c. 

Rem. 4. The adjectives, all, no, some, other may be joined with a singular or 
plural noun according to the sense. 

Rem. 5. "This here," " that there," for this and that; and " them," " them 
there," for these and those, are vulgarisms. 

Rem. 6. This means and that means refer to one cause ; these means, those 
means, to more than one, § 10, 5 Note. Amends is used in the same way as 
means. 

EXERCISES. 
This boys are diligent. I have not seen him this ten 
days. Those sort of people fear nothing. These soldiers 
are remarkable tall. They behaved the noblest. It is 
uncommon good . Them books are almost new. Give 
me that there knife. These kind of favours did real in- 
jury. There is six foot water in the hold. I have no 
interests but that of truth and virtue. You will find the 
remark in the second or third pages. Charles was ex- 
travagant, and by those means became poor. The scholars 
were attentive and industrious, and by that means ac- 
quired knowledge. Let each esteem others better than 
themselves. Every person, whatever be their station, 
are bound by the laws of morality and religion. Are 
either of these men vour friend ? 

10 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* § 56. 

§ 56. Rule IX. When two persojis or things 
are contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned, 
and this to the last ; as ? Virtue and vice are as op- 
posite to each other as light and darkness ; that 
enobles the mind 3 this debases it. 

Remark. Former and latter, one and other, are often used instead of that and 
this. Former and latter are alike in both numbers ; one and other refer to the 
singular only. That and this, as applied under this rule, are seldom applied to 
persons; but former and latter are applied to persons or things indiscriminately. 
In most cases the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them. 

Obs. Hence in the use of the demonstratives when no contrast is expressed, 
" this" and " these''' refer to things present or just mentioned : " that" and 
" those" to things distant or formerly mentioned. Thus, " they cannot be sepa 
rated from the subject, and for that reason," &c. should be, " and for this rea 
son," &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; this 
tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Religion rai- 
ses men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck 
of perishable earth, this opens for them a prospect to the 
skies. Rex and Tyrannus are of very different charac- 
ters ; that rules his people by laws to which they con- 
sent, this by his absolute will and power ; this is called 
freedom, that tyranny. More rain falls in the first two 
summer months than in the first two winter ones ; but it 
makes a much greater shew in the one than in the other, 
because there is a much slower evaporation. Health is 
more valuable than great possessions, and yet the latter 
is often sacrificed in the pursuit of the former. Exercise 
and temperance are the best promoters of health : that 
prevents disease ; this often dissipates it. 

Self-love, the spring of motion, moves the. soul ; 
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole : 
Man, but for this, no action could attend ; 
Man, but for that, were active to no end. 

(Ex. on Obs.) That very subject which we are now 
discussing, is still involved in mystery. This vessel of 
which you spoke yesterday, sailed for the West Indies 
this morning at 1 o'clock. 






§ 57, SYNTAX. 99 

§ 57. Rule X. I. Pronouns agree with the 
nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, 
and person ; as, John is here ; he came an hour 
ago. Every tree is known by its fruit. 

2. When a pronoun refers to tiuo words of dif- 
ferent persons connected by a copulative conjunc- 
tion, it becomes plural, and prefers the first person 
to the second, and the second to the third ; as. John 
and I will do our duty. 

Remark. 1. For an exception to this rule, see $ 15, 4. 

Rem. 2. The word containing the answer to a question must bem the same 
case with the word that asks it ; as, Who said that 1 I (said it.) Whose books 
are these ? John's. 

Rem. 3. It is improper, in the progress of a sentence, to express the same ob- 
ject by pronouns of different numbers or genders ; as, I laboured long to make 
thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be either, " to 
make you happy, or, thou rewardest." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Answer not a fool according to her folly. A stone 
is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than it both. Take handfuls of ashes of the fur- 
nace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in the sight 
of Pharaoh ; and it shall become small dust. The crown 
had it in their power to give such rewards as they thought 
proper. The fruit tree beareth fruit after his kind. Re- 
becca took goodly raiment and put them upon Jacob. 

2. Thou and he shared it between them. James and 
I are attentive to their studies. You and he are dili- 
gent in reading their books ; therefore they are good boys. 

(Rem. 2.) Who betrayed her companion? Not me. 
Who revealed the secrets he ought to have concealed ? 
Not him ; it was her. Whom did you meet ? He and 
his brother. Whose pen is that ? Mine's. Who bought 
that book? Him. 

(Rem. 3.) Virtue forces her way through obscurity, 
and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. Thou hast 
ever shewn thyself my real friend, and your kindness to 
me I can never forget. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Thou, goddess — mother, with our sire comply; 

If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §58 

§ 58. Rule XL 7 y he relative agrees with its an- 
tecedent in number and person, and the verb agrees 
with it accordingly ; as. Thou who speakest. The 
book which was lost. 

See observations on the relative and interrogative, § 16 &.I7. 

Remark 1. The antecedent, or that to which the relative refers, may be a noun, 
or pronoun, or clause of a sentence. 

Rem. 2. Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; which, to all other 
objects, — sometimes to children — to collective nouns composed of persons, when 
unity is expressed ; and also to persons in asking questions. (§ 17, Obs 1, 2, 4.) 

Rem. 3. The relative that is used instead of who or which ; — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree, — after the words same and all,— 
and often after no, some, and any. 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, The man and 
the horse that we saw yesterday. 

3. After the interrogative who ; and often after the personal pronouns ; as, 
Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus 1 I that speak in 
righteousness. 

EXERCISES. 

1 & 2. Those which seek wisdom, will certainly find 
her. This is the friend which I love. That is the vice 
whom I hate. This moon who rose last night had not 
yet filled her horns. Blessed is the man which waiketh 
in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a witness of the 
fact, can give an account of it. I am happy in the friend 
which I have long proved. The court who gives cur- 
rency to manners, ought to be exemplary. The tiger is 
a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. Who of 
these men came to his assistance? The child whom I 
saw, is dead. 

A train of heroes followed through the field, 
Which bore by turns great Ajax's sev'nfold shield. 
3. It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the 
wisest man whom ever the world saw. It is the same 
picture which you saw before. " And all which beauty, 
all which wealth e'er gave, await alike the inevitable 
hour." The lady and lapdog which we saw at the win- 
dow, have disappeared. The men and things which he 
has studied, have not contributed to the improvement of 
his morals. I who speak unto thee, am he. Sidney was 
one of the wisest and most active governors which Ire- 
land had enjoyed for several years. He has committed 
the same fault which I condemned yesterday. 






§ 59. SYNTAX. 101 

Rule XL Continued. 

§ 59. Special rules and observations. 

Rule I. The relative, with its clause, should be placed as near as pos~ 
sible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity ; thus, "The boy beat his 
companion, whom every body believed incapable of doing mischief," 
should be, " The boy, whom every body believed incapable of doing 
mischief, beat his companion." Hence, 

Rule II. When the relative is preceded by two words referring to 
the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it ; as, Thou art the 
man who was engaged in that business. 

Observation. The relative is sometimes in such sentences made to agree im- 
properly with the first ; " I am a man who am a Jew." This sentence, accord- 
ing to its construction, should be arranged thus ; I, who am a Jew, am a man. 
In such sentences care should always be taken to ascertain to which word the 
relative and its clause belongs, and to arrange the sentence accordingly. In this, 
the sense is the only guide. 

Rule III. The antecedent, if a pronoun of the third person, is often 
understood when no emphasis is implied, and is always included in the 
compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, &c. (§16, Obs. 3.) 

Observation. The relative is sometimes understood, especially in colloquial 
language; as, "The friend I visited yesterday, is dead to-day," for "The friend 
whom I visited," &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king dismissed his minister, without any inquiry, 
who had never before committed so unjust an action. The 
soldier with a single companion, who passed for the bravest 
man in the regiment, offered his services. Thou art a 
friend indeed, who hast relieved me in this dangerous cri- 
sis. 

II. Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me, and 
that hast not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need. 
I am the man who command you. I am the person who 
adopt that sentiment, and maintains it. Thou art he who 
driedst up the Red Sea before thy people Israel. 

III. He whoever steals my purse, steals trash. Those 
whom he would, he slew ; and those whom he would he 
kept alive. The man whosoever committeth sin, is the 
servant of sin. To them whomsoever he saw in distress, 
he imparted relief. 

10* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 60 

§ 60. Rule XII. Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero the Ora- 
tor. 

Words thus used are said to be in apposition. 

Rem. 1. Two or more nouns, forming one complex name, or a name and a ti- 
tle, with the definite article and a numeral adjective prefixed, have the plural ter- 
mination annexed to the last only; as, the two Miss Hays. The three Miss 
Browns. The two Dr. Monroes. Of married ladies, the name only is pluralized. 

Rem. 2. But when used without the numeral, the plural termination is annex 
ed to the first ; as, Messrs. Thompson. Misses Hamilton. — § 10, 1. 

Obs. The word containing the answer to a question, being in the same cod 
struction with the word that asks it, must always be in the same case ; as, Of 
whom were the books bought ? Of Johnson, him who lives in the Strand. 

EXERCISES. 

The chief of the princes, him who defied the bravest of 
the enemy, was assassinated by a dastardly villain. He 
was the son of the Rev. Dr. West, he who published Pin- 
dar at Oxford. 

(Rem. 1, 2.) The two Misses Louisa Howard are verv 
amiable young ladies. The two Messrs. Websters left 
town yesterday. The two Messrs. Websters will return 
to-morrow. The Doctors Stevensons have been success- 
ful in performing a very difficult operation. The two Doc- 
tors Ramsays have returned. The Mrs. Townsend were 
there, as well as the Mrs. Bay. 

(Obs.) Of whom were the articles bought? Of a gro- 
cer, he who resides near the Mansion-House. Was any 
person besides the grocer present? Yes, both him and his 
clerk were present. W r ho was the money paid to ? To 
the grocer. Who counted it ? Both the clerk and him. 
Who said that ? Me. Whose books are these ? Her 
who went out a few minutes ago. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES, 

Two and two makes four. Dew and hoar frost is more 
copious in valleys than it is in elevated situations. Either 
his gratitude or his compassion were roused. , Neither he 
nor I intends to write on that subject. In the human spe- 
cies the influence of instinct and habit are generally assisted 
by the suggestions of reason. Thomas said that James 
and me might go. Godliness, with contentment, are great 
gain. Either avarice, or the cares of this life, has misled 
aim. 



§ 61. SYNTAX. 103 

§ 61. Rule XIII. A verb may have the same 
case after it as before it, when both words refer to 
the same thing ; as, It is I. I took it to be him. 

Rem. 1. Verbs having the same case after them as before them, are chiefly the 
verb " to be," " to become," and some other intr. verbs, and passive verbs of 
naming, choosing, appointing, and the like ; as, He shall be called John. He be- 
came the slave of irregular passions. Stephen died a Martyr. In these examples, 
the case of the subject determines the case of the predicate according to the rule. 
But, 

Rem. 2. In substantive phrases the infinitive or participle of an intr. verb 
without a subject is followed by a substantive or adjective taken indefinitely, 
and the substantive is in the objective case ; ($ 40. R. 23. Obs. 2.) as, " To be the 
slave of passion, is of all slavery the most wretched." " His dying intestate caused 
all this trouble." " It is our duty to be obedient to our parents." 

Rem. 3. In English almost any verb may be used as a copula between its sub- 
ject and an adjective as a part, or at least as a modification of the predicate ; 
as, " It tastes good," "The wind blows hard," "1 remember right," "He feels 
sick," " He strikes hard," " He drinks deep," &c. In such expressions the ad- 
jective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that they are usually parsed 
as such. This, however, is so common a phraseology in our language, and espe- 
cially in poetry, that they should rather be considered as adjectives in fact as 
well as ill form, though used in a way somewhat peculiar. These expressions 
seem to be analogous to the Latin " insons feci," " I did it innocently ; " " accur 
runt laeti," " They mn up joy fully." Or the Greek d<ptK£ro Sevrspatos, he enma 
on the second day. 

EXERCISES. 

It was me who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it is me 
I am certain that it could not have been her. It is them 
that deserve most blame* You would undoubtedly act the 
same part if you were him. I understood it to be be. It 
may have been him, but there is no proof of it. It may 
have been him or them who did it. 

Who do you think him to be ? Whom do men say that 
I am ? She is the person who I understood it to have been. 
Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. Was 
it me that said so ? It is impossible to be them. I am 
certain it was not him. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell me 
what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the schol- 
ars is reading. Trust not him, whom, you know, is disho- 
nest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 62. 

§ 62. Rule XIV. Whentioo nouns come together, 
denoting the possessor and the thing' possessed, the 
first is put in the possessive case ; as, John's book ; 
on eagle's wings. 

Observation. The latter or governing substantive is frequently understood ; as , 
I found him at the stationer's, (viz. shop or house.) 

&Cr* For observations on the possessive pronoun, see § 18, 1, Obs. 1. 

Remark 1. The preposition o/, with the objective, is generally equivalent te 
the possessive case, and is often used in preference to it. Thus, " In the name of 
the army," is better than " In the army's name." Sometimes, however, these 
two modes of expression are not equivalent ; thus, " The Lord's day," and 
"The day of the Lord," convey ideas entirely different. <S 12, 3. 

Rem. 2. Sometimes " of" is used before the possessive governing a substantive 
understood after it ; as, This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's, /Viz. discov- 
eries.) " This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton." exprpsses the same idea. 
These two modes of expression, however, sometimes convey quite different ideas ; 
thus, " A picture of my friend," means a portrait of him. " A picture of my 
friend's," means a picture belonging to him. Under both these remarks it may 
be observed as a general 

Rule. In the use of the possessive, or of its equivalent, " of," with 
the objective, care should be taken to avoid harshness on the one hand 
and ambiguity on the other. 

EXERCISES. 

It is Pompeys pillar. Seek Virtues reward. A mans 
manners frequently influence his fortune. My ancestors 
virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect with the 
Lord. A mothers tenderness and a father's care are na- 
tures gifts for mans advantage. Helen her beauty was the 
cause of Troy its destruction. Longinus his treatise on 
the sublime. Christ his sake. 

(Rem. 1,2.) The Commons vote was decidedly against 
the measure. The Lord's house adjourned at a late hour. 
The Representative's house convened at 12 o'clock. He 
married my daughter's husbands sister. She married the 
brother of the wife of my son. The Lord's day will come 
as a thief in the night. The next day of the Lord came 
all the people to hear the word. That is a good likeness 
of De Witt Clinton's. He is the only son of his mother's. 
The court's decision. I beg the favour of your acceptance 
of a copy of a view of the manufactories of the West Riding 
of Yorkshire. The report of the sickness of the son of 
the king of England, excited the nation's fears. 



Q 63, SYNTAX. 105 

§ 63. Observations on Rule XIV. 

1. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, im- 
plying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is annexed 
to the last, and understood to the rest; as, " Jane and Lucy's books," 
i. e. books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But if common 
possession is not implied, or if several words intervene, the sign of the 
possessive should be annexed to each ; as, " Jane's and Lucy's books," 
i. e. books, some of which are Jane's and others Lucy's. " Thi3 
gained the king's, as well as the people's approbation." 

2. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, the 
sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, "Julius Csesar's 
Commentaries." " John the Baptist's head." " His brother Philip's 
wife." " The Bishop of London's charge." 

3. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of 
the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, I called at Smith's the 
bookseller, or, at Smith the bookseller's. But if, to such a phrase, the 
governing substantive is added, the sign of the possessive must be an- 
nexed to the last ; as, "I called at Smith the bookseller's shop." 

4. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of more 
terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the 
name or first substantive ; as, " This Psalm is David's, the king, priest, 
and prophet of the people." " That book is Smith's, the bookseller in 
Maiden Lane." 

5. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different 
words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as, " He 
took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative," i. e. at the 
" Governor's house." 

6. The s after the apostrophe is omitted, when the first noun has 
the sound of s in each of its two last syllables, and the second noun 
begins with s; as, For righteousness' sake, &c. (§ 12, 2.) In other 
cases, such omission would generally be improper ; as, James' book, 
Miss' shoes ; instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. 

7. A clause of a sentence should never come between the posses- 
sive case and the word by which it is governed ; thus, " She began to 
extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding," should 
be, — " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

8. The possessive whosesoever and the compounds whichsoever, wJwtso- 
ever, howsoever are sometimes divided by interposing the word to which 
they belong ; as, whose house soever ; what man soever. This in gen- 
eral however is to be avoided, and to be admitted only when euphony 
and precision are thereby promoted. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 63. 

Rule XIV. Continued. 
§ 63. Exercises on Observations. 

1. William's and Mary's reign. This is your father's 
mother's and brother's advice. Peter's John's and An- 
drew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked his 
father, as well as his mother's advice. John and Robert's 
boots fit them very well. The Betsey and the Speedwell's 
cargoes were both damaged. 

2. Jack's the Giant killer's wonderful exploits. The 
Bishop's of Landaff's excellent work. During Charles's 
the second's reign. The Lord Mayor's of London author- 
ity. That carriage is the Lord Mayor's of London. 

3. The books were left at Brown's the bookseller's. I 
left him at May ell's the hatter's shop. Thorburn's the 
seedsman store is now open. 

4. The books were left at Brown the bookseller and sta- 
tioner's. I left the parcel at Johnson, a respectable book- 
seller, a worthy man, and an old friend's. I reside at 
Lord Storrnont, my old patron and benefactor's. Whose 
glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest 
general of antiquity's. 

5. That book is Thompson the Tutor's assistant. We 
spent an agreeable hour at Wilson the Governor's deputy, 
and on our return called at Mr. Smith little Henry's father. 

6. James' father arrived yesterday and Mr. Spence' ser- 
vant came with him. Charles' books are completely spoiled. 
For conscience's sake Miss' books have been sent home. 

7. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he 
was called, senseless and extravagant conduct. This is 
Paul's the christian hero and great apostle of the Gentiles 
advice. Beyond this the arts cannot be traced of civil 
society. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THIS RULE. 

The emperor and the Dukes cavalry were engaged. 
This is for consciences sake. Escape Atrides ire. He 
bought the articles at Wilson's the druggist's. William and 
John's wives were present. The. estate of William's was 
much encumbered. 



$ 64. SYNTAX. 107 

§ 64. Rule XV When the present 'participle is 
used as a noun, (§ 30, 7.) a noun before it is put in 
the possessive case ; as, Much depends on the pupiVs 
composing frequently. 

Obs. A pronoun in this construction must be the possessive pronoun, not the 
possessive case ; as, Much depends on your composing, &c, not yours composing. 

Remark 1. If not used as a noun, the noun or pronoun before it may be in any 
case which the construction requires; as, I see men walking. These two modes 
of expression, in many cases, convey very different ideas, and therefore care should 
be taken not to confound them ; thus, " What do you think of my horse running 
to-day V % means, Do you think I should let him run 1 But, " What do you think 
of my horse's running to-day V means, he has run, do you think he ran well 1 

Rem. 2. The present participle, with a possessive before it, sometimes admits 
of after it, and sometimes not. 

Rem. 3. When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissable : as, His 
depending on promises, proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when young, 
rendered him ignorant all his life 

EXERCISES. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his ser- 
vant so hastily? I remember it being done. This jea- 
lousy accounts for Hall charging the Duke of Gloucester 
with the murder of Prince Edward. He being a great 
man did not make him a happy man. Much depends on 
the rule being observed. Richard observing the rule will 
be the means of him avoiding error. What do you think 
of my horse running to-day? did he run well? 

(Rem. 1.) That man's running so fast, is in danger of 
falling. A youth's pursuing his studies with diligence 
and perseverance, can hardly fail of success. What do 
you think of my horse's running to-day ? will it be safe ? 

(Rem. 2.) Our approving their bad conduct may en- 
courage them to become worse. For his avoiding that 
precipice he is indebted to his friend's care. Their ob- 
serving the rules prevented errors. By his studying of 
the scriptures he became wise. Their condemning of 
the innocent and acquitting of the guilty will cover them 
with infamy. Heraldry teaches the knowledge of those* 
marks of honour called coats of arms, and the method of 
blazoning of them and marshalling of them : blazoning 
signifies the displaying the several emblems and colours 
of an achievement in proper terms ; marshalling, is the 
joining divers arms in one shield. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 65. 

§ 65. Rule, XVI. When the present participle, 
used as a noun, has an article before it, it should 
have the preposition of, after it ; as, In the keeping 
of his commandments there is a great reward. 

Remark 1. The sense will often be the same if both the article and the preposi- 
tion be omitted : but the one should not be omitted without the other : thus, In 
keeping his commandments, &c. When a possessive case or a possessive pro- 
noun precedes, of usually follows. See § 64, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 2. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different ideas, 
and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as, He confessed the whole in 
the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent an hour in hearing their de 
position. 

To prevent ambiguity in such cases, it might be well to observe the following 

Rule. — When the participle expresses something of which the noun 
following is the doer, it should have the article and preposition ; as, " It 
was said in theJiearing of the witness." When it expresses something 
of which the noun following is not the doer but the object, both should be 
omitted ; as, the Court spent some time in hearing the witness.* 

EXERCISES. 

Learning of languages is very difficult. The learning 
any thingspeedily, requires great application. By the 
exercising our faculties, they are improved. By observ- 
ing of these rules, you will avoid mistakes. By the ob- 
taining wisdom, thou wilt command esteem. This was a 
betraying the trust reposed in him. The not attending to 
this rule, is the cause of a very common error. He con- 
fined all his philosophy to the suffering ills patiently. 
This order so critically given, occasioned the gaining the 
battle. This was, in fact, converting the deposites to 
his own use. Propriety of pronunciation is the giving 
to every word that sound, which the most polite usage of 
the language appropriates to it. 

(Rem. 2.) At hearing the ear they shall obey. Be 
cause of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord ab- 
horred them. He expressed the pleasure he had in the 
hearing of the philosopher. In the hearing of the will 
read, and in the examining of sundry papers, much time 
was spent. 

♦ For the participle in ing used absolutely, see $ 80, Obs. 2. 






§ 66. SYNTAX. 109 

§ 66. Rule XVII. The perfect participle, and 
not the imperfect tense, should be used after the verbs 
have and be ; as, I have written, (not wrote.) I am 
chosen. 

Remark 1. The perfect participle should not be used instead of the imperfect 
tense : Thus it is improper to say " he begun," for "he began, " he run," for 
" he ran," " he done," for "he did;" "he seen," for "he saw." 

Rem 2. The present participle active, and not the perfect, is used after the verb 
tc be, to express the continued suffering of an action; as, "The house is build- 
ing" not " being built." When the participle in -ing has not a passive sense, the 
idea must be expressed by means of the active voice. Thus we do not say " the 
book is now reading" (nor " the book is now being read,") but "he for she, &c.) 
is now reading the book." See § 30 and 31 

EXERCISES. 

I would have wrote a letter. He had mistook his true 
interest. The coat had no seam, but was wove througnout. 
The French language is spoke in every part of Europe. 
His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposi- 
tion. The horse was stole from the pasture. They have 
chose the part of honour and virtue. She was shewed into 
the drawing room. He has broke the bottle. Some fell 
by the way side and w 7 as trode dow T n. The work was very 
well execute. Philosophers have often mistook the true 
source of happiness. He has chose to ride. He drunk 
too much. I am almost froze. He has forsook us. The 
desk was shook. It was well wrote. 

1. By too eager pursuit he run a great risk of being dis- 
appointed. He soon begun to weary of having nothing to 
do. He w-as greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. The 
bending hermit here a prayer begun. And end with sor- 
rows as they first begun. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, 

And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. 

These men done more than could have been expected. 
There can be no mistake, for I seen them do it. 

2. The work was then being printed, and it was expected 
to be published in a few T days. That house has been being 
built for six months ; it is now being plastered, and will be 
finished soon. He is now being shaved at the barber's shop. 
A place is now being prepared for us. The world was then 
circumnavigating by Captain Cook. 

11 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 67 

§ 67. Rule XVIII. 1. One verb governs another 
in the infinitive mood ; as, I desire to learn. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after 
the verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and 
Jet, in the active voice, nor after let, in the passive. 

Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, 
have, and know. 

Remark 1. The infinitive after a verb is governed by it only when the attribute 
expressed by the infinitive is either the subject or object of the other verb. In 
such expressions as "I read to learn," the infinitive is not governed by " I read," 
but depends on the phrase " in order to " understood. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive is also used sometimes independently of the rest of the 
sentence, like the imperfect participle ; (§ 80, Obs. 3.) as, To confess the truth, I 
was in fault. 

Rule. — The infinitive mood is often governed by nouns, adjectives 
and participles, and sometimes stands after as corresponding with so ; 
as, They have a desire to learn : Worthy to be praised : Wishing to 
excel : Be so good as to read this letter. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Strive learn. They obliged him do it. Newton did 
not wish obtrude his discoveries on the public. His pene- 
tration and diligence seemed vie with each other. 

2. They need not to call upon her. I dare not to pro- 
ceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to con- 
duct themselves very discreetly. He bade me to go home. 
It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to ap- 
prove the one and to reject the other. We heard the thun- 
der to roll. He felt the pain to abate. I would have you 
to take more care. He was reluctantly made obey. They 
were heard say it in a large company. They were seen 
pass the house. He was let to go. I have observed some 
satirists to use the term. 

Promiscuous, — He writes as the best authors would have 
wrote, had they writ upon the same subject. The enemies 
who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. 
They that honour me, them will I honour. Good as the 
cause is, it is one from which numbers are deserted. The 
number was now amounted to fifty. They were descended 
from a noble family. 



§68. SYNTAX. Ill 

§ 68. Rule XIX. 1. When doubt and futurity 
are both implied,, the subjunctive mood is used ; as, 
Though he fall, (i. e. at some future time,) he shall 
arise again. 

2. When doubt only, and not futurity, is implied, 
the indicative is used ; as, If he speaks (i. e. now,) 
as he thinks, he may be safely trusted. 

Remark. Doubt is usually expressed by the conjunctions if, though, unless, 
except, whether, &x. Whether futurity is implied or not, must be ascertained 
from the context. In accurate composition, of course the mood employed will 
direct to the meaning of the sentence ; thus, " I will do it if the master desires 
me," (i. e. at present.) Here there is uncertainty only whether he does desire me. 
" I will do it if the master desire me," (i. e. at a future time.) Here there is un- 
certainty whether he will desire me. or not. Consequently there is both doubt 
and futurity. If and though, &c. when referring to what is fixed and certain, are 
equivalent to a notwithstanding,'" and consequently the verb follows in the in- 
dicative ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakes "he became poor. 

Rule I. Lest, and thaUannexed to a command, require the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, Love not sleep 5 lest thou come to poverty. Take heed 
that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad. 

Rule II. If, with hut following it, iu hen futurity is denoted, requires 
the subjunctive mood; as, If he do but touch the hills they shall smoke. 
When future time is not expressed, the indicative ought to be used. 

Obs. The subjunctive is used to express a wish or desire ; as, " 1 
wish that I were at home." " O that he were wise." 

EXERCISES. 

If a man smites his servant and he die, he shall surely 
be put to death. If he acquires riches they will corrupt 
his mind. Though he be high he hath respect to the lowly. 
If thou live virtuously, thou art happy. If he does promise 
he will certainly perform. O that his heart was tender. 
As the governess were present the children behaved pro- 
perly. Though he falls he shall not be utterly cast down. 
If he is at home to-morrow, give him the letter. 

(Rule I.) Despise not any condition lest it happens to 
be thy own. Let him that is sanguine take heed lest he 
miscarries. Take care that thou speakest the truth. 

(Rule II.) If he is but discreet he will succeed. If he 
be but in health I am content. If he does but intimate his 
desire, it will produce obedience. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 69. 

§ 69. Rule XX. 1. Conjunctions couple the same 
moods and tenses of verbs ; as. Do good, and seek 
peace. 

2. Conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, He and I are happy. 

Remark 1. Verbs in the same mood and tense, connected by a conjunction, 
must also be in the same form. For the different forms of the verb, see § 24. 

Rem. 2. When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, the nomina- 
tive is generally repeated ; as, He may return, but he will not remain. 

Rem. 3. When a contrast is stated, with but, not, though, &c. the nominative 
is usually repeated, even with the same mood and tense ; as, You can not ride, 
but you may walk. 

Observation, x^fter verbs of doubting, fearing and denying, the conjunction 
that should be used, and not lest , but, but that ; as, You do not doubt that he is 
honest, (not, but that, &c.) They feared that they would not return, (not lest, 
&c.) You do not deny that he has some ability, (not, but he has,) &c. That is 
frequently understood ; as, We were desirous (that) you would return. 

Rem. 4. The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when the 
nominative goes before ; as, Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned. 
This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, " than," at first had the 
force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man but will rest only in the bosom of 
fools. If he understand the subject and attends to it he 
can scarcely fail of success. Professing regard and to act 
differently mark a base mind. 

2. He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 
You and us enjoy many privileges. My father and him 
were very intimate. He is taller than me. I am not so 
wise as him. She was six years older than me. You may 
as lawfully preach as them that do. 

1. We often overlook the blessings we possess, and are 
searching after those which are out of our reach. Did he 
not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him ? 

2 & 3. Rank may confer influence, but will not neces- 
sarily produce virtue. She was proud though now humble. 
He is not rich but respectable. Our season of improve- 
ment is short, and whether used or not will soon pass away. 
I have been young, but now am old. 

(Obs.) We can not question but this confederacy must 
have been a source of friendship and attachment. We 
were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 



§70. SYNTAX. 113 

§ 70. Rule XXI. Some conjunctions and ad- 
verbs have their corresponding conjunctions ; thus, 

.Wither requires nor after it; as, Neither he nor his brother was in. 

Though, yet ; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes. &e. 

Whether, or ; Whether he go or stay. 

Either, or ; I will either write or send. 

As, as • (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. 

As, so ; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. 

So, as; (with a negative expressing inequality; Ke is not so 

wise as his brother. 

So, that ; (expressing consequence) I arn so weak that I cannot 

walk. 

Not only, but also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in dan- 
ger. 

If, then ; (in reasoning) If he can do it, then he will do it. 

►Vote. As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly ad- 
verbs. — § 34, 4. 

Bern. The infinitive is often used after as corresponding to so; as, "I must be so 
plain as to tell you your faults." 

Note. The Poets frequently use Or — or, for Either — or and Nor — nor, for 
Neither — nor. In prose, Not — nor, is often used for Neither — nor. The yet af 
ter though is often properly suppressed. Or does not require either before, when 
the one w T ord is a mere explanation of the other ; as, It is six feet or one fathom 
deep. In other cases, when either is not used, it may be supplied, 

EXERCISES. 
It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not 
explain it. The relations are so uncertain as that they 
require much examination. The one is equally deserv- 
ing as the other. I must be so candid to own that I 
have been mistaken. He would not do it himself nor let 
me do it. He was as angry as he could not speak. So 
as thy days so shall thy strength be. Though he slay 
me so will I trust in him. He must go himself or send 
his servant. There is no condition so secure as cannot 
admit of change. He is not as eminent and as much es- 
teemed as he thinks himself to be. Neither despise the 
poor or envy the rich, for the one dieth so as the other. 
As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
His raiment was so white as snow. He must be as can- 
did as to say so. There was no man so sanguine, who 
did not apprehend some ill consequences. The dog in 
the manger would not eat the hay himself, rior suffer the 
ox to do it. He was so fat he could hardly walk. — 
Neither despise or oppose what thou dost not understand. 

11* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 7l. 

§ 71. Rule XXII. The comparative degree 
and the pronoun other require than after them, and 
such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other 
than he ; Such as do well. 

Such meaning a consequence, cr so great requires that after it. 

Rule. — When hvo objects are compared, the comparative is generally 
used; but when more than two, the superlative ; as, James is older than 
John. Mary is the wisest of them all. 

Remark 1. Sometimes, however, the superlative is used when only two objects 
are compared, as it is frequently more agreeable to the ear, and it cannot injure 
the sense ; thus, He is the weakest of the two. 

Rem. 2. A comparison in which more than two is concerned may be expressed 
by the comparative as well as by the superlative ; and in some cases better : but 
the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging to different classes ; 
while the superlative compares mem as included in one class. The comparative 
is used thus ; " Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity." Here 
Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She 
was none of the other nations : She was more polished than they. The same 
idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out. Thus, 
<•' Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity." Here to Greece is assigned the 
highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered — the nations of 
antiquity : she is one of them. This distinction should be carefully observed. The 
comparative is sometimes used in the same way ; as, He is the taller of the two. 

EXERCISES. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assist- 
ance. They had no sooner risen but they applied them- 
selves to their studies. These savage people seemed to 
have no other element but war. Such men that act 
treacherously ought to be avoided. He gained nothing 
farther by his speech, but only to be commended for his 
eloquence. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 
Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To trust in 
him is no more but to acknowledge his power. 

(Rule.) James is the wisest of the two. Of the three, 
Jane is the weaker. (Rem. 2.) Chimborazo is higher 
than any other mountain in Europe. Eve was the fair- 
est of all her daughters. I understood him the best of 
all others who spoke on the subject. Solomon was wiser 
than any of the ancient kings. China has a greater 
population than any nation on earth. London is the 
most populous of any city in France. Spain possessed 
more merchant ships than any nation in Europe. Jacob 
loved Joseph more than all his children. 



§ 72. SYNTAX. 115 

§ 72. Rule XXIII. Double comparatives and 
superlatives are improper ; Thus we ought not to 
say, "more better," "most better," but "better," 

" best." 

Obs. It is improper to compare adjectives whose signification does not admit 
of increase or diminution, (§ 13, Obs. 4.) Of this kind are true, perfect, uni- 
versal, chief, extreme, supreme, &c, which have in themselves a superlative 
sense. When comparison of these and similar words is admitted, as is sometimes 
done, they must be understood in a limited sense. Such adjectives as superior, 
inferior, though they imply comparison, are not in the comparative degree, and 
are never construed as such, but have to after them. 

EXERCISES. 

It argued the most sincerest candor to make such an 
acknowledgement. After the most strictest sect of our 
religion I lived a Pharisee. He always possessed a more 
serener temper. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys, 
than to maintain one. The tongue is like a race horse 
which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. The 
nightingales voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

His assertion was most untrue. His work was per- 
fect ; his brother's more perfect, and his father's the most 
perfect of all. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on 
man, and should be his chiefest desire. His most ex- 
treme vanity renders him most supremely ridiculous. 
This is more inferior than that though it is more superior 
than many others. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

The great power and force of custom forms another 
argument against bad company. And Joshua he shall go 
over before thee as the Lord hath said. If thou be the 
king of the Jews save thyself. The people therefore that 
was with him when he raised Lazarus out of his grave, 
bare record. Public spirit is a more universal principle 
than a sense of honour. I see you have a new pair of 
gloves. Five years' interest were demanded. In all his 
works is sprightliness and vigour. The returns of kind- 
ness is sweet, and there are neither honour nor virtue 
in resisting them. 

How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice ; 
Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 73, 

§ 73. Rule XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. § 33. 

2. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; 
Thus. " Use a little wine for thine often infirmities," 
should be, ci for thy frequent infirmities." 

Rule J. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, 
because it is im 



Note. Custom, however, has so far sanctioned the violation of this rule, that a 
strict adherence to it would now appear stiff and affected. 

Rule II. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, are now 
used only on solemn occasions. In other cases, the adverbs, here, 
there, and where, are employed ; as, He came, here. Yfe rode there. 

Obs. 1. Where should not be used for in which, nor when, then, and 
while as nouns. So, is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, 
or a whole sentence ; as, They are rich, we are not so. He is a good 
scholar, and I told you so. 

Obs. 2. Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others, 
are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, Not only the men, but the 
women also were present. 

Obs. 3. There is an adverb of place ; but in the common phrases 
" there is," "there are," " there have been," &c. its reference to place 
is lost sight of, and it is used merely as a leading word to the verb, when 
the nominative follows it, and to convey the idea of existence simply ; 
as, " There are men who cannot read" i. e. men are in existence who 
cannot read. To say, "men are who cannot read," would in our lan- 
guage, at least, sound abiupt and harsh. The French make the same use 
of this adverb in the corresponding expressions "ilya," "ilyavoit." &c. 

EXERCISES. 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 
He was befriended by the then reigning Duke. Some of 
my then hearers urged me to publish these lectures. 

(Rule I. and II.) From whence come ye ? He departed 
from thence into a desert place. I will send thee far from 
hence to the Gentiles. Where art thou gone ! The city is 
near, O let me escape there. Where I am, there ye can- 
not come. From whence we may likewise date the period 
of this event. He walked thither in less than an hour. 

(Obs.i.) He drew up a petition where he represented 
his own merit. He went to London last year, since when 
I have not seen him. The situation where I found him. 



§ 74. SYNTAX. 1 17 

§ 74. Rule XXV. Adverbs are for the most 
part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the 
simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the com- 
pound form ; as, He is very attentive, behaves well, 
and is much esteemed. 

Obs. 1. This is to be considered only as a general rule to which there are many 
exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, which is 
not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the meaning with 
most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, 
or at some distance after it. Never, often, always, sometimes, generally precede 
the verb. Not, with the present participle, should generally be placed before it. 
Enough follows the adjective, and sometimes both follow the noun ; thus, a 
solid enough reason, or, a reason solid enough. 

The introductive or emphatic there, and the interrogative where, are placed at 
the beginning of the sentence ; as, There were many varieties ; There they are. 
Where are you 1— There, in its strict sense, follows the verb ; as, The man stands 
there. 

Obs. 2. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambiguity. 
This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by placing it 
at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by pla- 
cing it before the predicating term ; and when it refers to a subject, by placing it 
after its name or description , as, " Only acknowledge thine iniquity :" " The 
thoughts of his heart are only evil :" Take nothing for your journey but a staff 
only.'' These observations will generally be applicable to the words, merely, 
solely, chiefly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 

Obs. 3. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded. 

EXERCISES. 
We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard atten- 
tively by the whole assembly. It cannot be impertinent 
or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate. Not only he 
found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. In 
the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully re- 
quires to be consulted as well as tbe sense. 

(Obs. 1.) The women contributed all their rings and 
jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having not 
known, or having not considered the measures proposed, 
he failed of success. He was determined to invite back 
the king, and to call together his friends. 

(Obs. 2.) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 
By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
object, but the largeness of a whole view. Only you 
have I known, of all the nations of the earth. In using 
every exertion in our power for the public good, we only 
discharge our duty. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 75* 

§ 75. Rule XXVI. Two negatives in the same 
sentence are improper, unless we mean to affirm ; 
thus, " I cannot by no means allow it," should be, "I 
cannot by any means allow it." Or, " I can by no 
means allow it." 

The reason of this rule is, that one negative destroys another, or is equivalent 
to an affirmative. 

Obs. Sometimes two negatives are intended to affirm, and in this case, if one of 
them, such as dis-, in-, im-, un-, &c. is prefixed to another word, a pleasing and 
delicate variety of expression is produced; as, "Nor was the king unacquainted 
with his designs," i.e. he " was acquainted with them." In such sentences the 
intervention of only, which is equivalent to a distinct clause, preserves the nega- 
tion ; as, " He was not only illiberal, but he was covetous." But if the negative 
consist of two separate and detached words, the expression is generally harsh and 
inelegant ; as, Nor have I no money which I can spare, i. c. I have money which 
I can spare. 

Note. The English language in this respect agrees with the Latin, but differs 
. from the Greek and French, in both of which two negatives with the same sub • 
ject render the negation stronger. 

EXERCISES. 
I cannot drink no more. He cannot do nothing. He 
will never be no taller. Covet neither riches nor honours, 
nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt me thyself, 
nor let no one disturb me. I am resolved not to comply 
with the proposal, neither at present nor at any other time. 
I have received no information on the subject, neither from 
him nor from his friend. There cannot be nothing more 
insignificant than vanity. Nor is danger apprehended in 
such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend 
danger from thunder or earthquakes. Never no imitator 
grew up to his author. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets thee 
forth to view. That it is our duty to be pious admit not 
of any doubt. If he becomes rich he may be less indus- 
trious. It was wrote extempore. Romulus, which founded 
Rome, killed his brother Remus. He involved a friend in 
a troublesome lawsuit who had always supported him. 
Who of you convinceth me of sin. I treat you as a boy 
who love to learn and are ambitious of receiving instruc- 
tion. He was the ablest minister which James ever pos- 
sessed. 



§76. SYNTAX. 119 

§ 76. Rule XXVII. Appropriate prepositions 
must be used before names of places ; thus, 

To— is used after a verb of motion ; as, He went to Spain, but it is omitted be- 
fore home ; as, he went home yesterday. 

At — is used after the verb to be ; as, I was at Rochester. 

In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live in Albany, ill 
the State of New- York. 

At — is used before single houses, villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He is at 
home, He resided at Gretna green ; at York ; at Rome. 

Obs. 1. One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, He lives in State 
Street, or if the word number be used, — at No. State Street. 

Obs. 2. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but they never 
govern it ; it is always governed by an active verb or preposition understood ; as, 
Ah me ! i. e. Ah ! what has happened to me. The case after an interjection will 
always have to depend on tlie supplement to be made. It will generally, how- 
ever, be the objective of theirs* personal pronoun, and the nominative of the 
second; as, Ah me! O thou wretch ! § 80. 2. 

EXERCISES. 

They have just arrived in Buffalo, and are going to Ro- 
chester. They will reside two months at England. I have 
been to London after having resided in France, and I now 
live at New- York. 1 was in the place appointed long be- 
fore any of the rest. We touched in Liverpool on our way 
for New-York. I have been to home for a few days. He 
spends much of his time in a village in Long Island. He 
had lodgings at George's Square. He boards in No. 12, 
Dean-street. We have been to home since morning. I 
will go to home to-morrow. 

(Obs. 2.) Ah! unhappy thee, \*ho are deaf to the calls 
of duty and of honour. Oh ! happy us, surrounded with 
so many blessings. Woe's I, for I am a man of unclean 
lips. 

Promiscuous. He has been expecting of us some time. 
Young persons need not to be initiated in the language of 
controversy. His quitting of the army was unexpected. I 
seen him yesterday. If there was no cowardice, there 
would be little insolence. I was rejoiced at the news. I 
shall do my friends no wrong, for [ have none to lament 
me. They were descended from a family that came over 
with the Conqueror. They did not behave with that deco- 
rum which is the duty of every gentleman to observe. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



77. 



§ 77. Rule XXVIII. Certain words and phrases 
must be followed with appropriate prepositions ; 
such as. 



Abhorrence of. 
Accommodate to. 
Accord with. 
Accuse of. 
Acquit of 
Adapted to. 
Agreeable to. 

Ask or inquire of a person for 
what we wish to see, — after 
what we wish to hear of. 
Averse to or from. 
Believe in, sometimes on. 
Bestow upon. 
Betray to a person, — into any 

thing else. 
Boast of See Obs. 3. 
Call on a person, — at a house. 
Change for. 
Charge a person with a thing, — 

a thing on an agent. 
Compare with, in respect of 
quality, — to, for the sake of 
illustration. 
Compliance with. 
Concur with, in, on. 
Confide in. 

Conformable, consonant to. 
Conversant with men, — in things ; 
about and among are less 
proper. 
Copy from life, nature, — after a 

parent. 
Dependent upon. 
Derogative from. 
Die of disease — by an instrument 

or violence. 
Differ from. 
Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, — diminution of. 
Disappointed in or of § 86, 5. 
Disapprove of See Obs. 3. 
Discourage from. 
Discouragement to. 
Dissent from. 
Eager in. 



Engaged in a work — for a time. 

Equal to, with. 

Exception from. 

Expert in, (before a noun,) — at, 

(before an active participle.) 
Fall under. 
Familiar to, with: A thing is 

familiar to us ; we are familiar 

with it. 
Free from. 
Glad of, something gained by 

ourselves, — at, something that 

befals another. 
Incorporate into, (when active.) 
with, (when neuter.) 
Independent of ox on. 
Indulge loith what ; s not habit 

ual, — in what is habitual. 
Insist upon. 
Intrude into an enclosed place ; 

upon what is not enclosed. 
Made of. 
Marry to. 
Martyr for. 
Need of 
Observation of. 
Prejudice against. 
Prevail (to persuade) with, on, 

upon, — (to overcome,) over, 

against. 
Profit by. 

Protect (others) from, — (our- 
selves) against. 
Provide with or for. 
Reconcile to friendship, — with, 

(to make consistent.) 
Reduce (to subdue) under, — in 

other cases, to ; as, to powder, 

to fractions. 
Regard to. 
Replete with. 
Resemblance to. 
Resolve on. 
Rule over. 
Sick of 



§ 77. SYNTAX. 121 

Rule XXVIII. Continued. 

Sink into, beneath. sense) ivith, — (in an active 

Swerve from. sense) to. 

Taste for, or of. § 86, 6. Value upon or on. 

Tax with % (e. g. a crime,) — for Vest with a thing possessed — in 

the state. the possessor. 

Think of or on. Wait wpon, on. 

True fo. Worthy o/; sometimes the of is 

Unite (in a neutral or passivo understood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The particular preposition which it is proper to use, often de- 
pends as much upon what follows as upon what goes before ; thus 
we say. To fall from a height, — to fall into a pit, — to fall to work, — 
to fall upon an enemy. 

2. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and denotes entrance : 
In is used when motion or rest in a place is signified ; as, They went 
into a carriage, and travelled in it ten miles. 

3. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without of. 
Worthy has sometimes of following it, and sometimes not. 

4. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, usually 
follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa ; as, Confide in, — 
confidence in, — confident in. Disposed to tyrannize, — a disposition 
to tyrannize, &c. 

EXERCISES. 

He was very eager of recommending him to his fel- 
low-citizens. He found great difficulty of writing. He 
accused the ministers for having betrayed the Dutch. 
This is certainly not a change to the better. The Eng- 
lish were a very different people then to what they are 
now. The history of Peter is agreeable with the sa- 
cred text. It was intrusted to persons on whom Con- 
gress could confide. I completely dissent with the exa- 
miner. Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path 
of duty. There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
We can safely confide on none but the truly good. 
Many have profited from good advice. The error was 
occasioned by compliance to earnest entreaty. This is a 
principle in unison to our nature. This remark is found- 
ed in truth. His parents think on him and his improve 
ments with pleasure and hope. 

12 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 77, 

Exercises on Rule XXVIII. Continued. 

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving 
persons. The wisest persons need not think it any di- 
minution of their greatness, or derogation to their suffi- 
ciency, to rely upon counsel. Conformable with this 
plan. It is consonant with our nature. He had no re- 
gard after his father's commands. There was a preju- 
dice to his cause. There is no need for it. Reconciling 
himself with the king. They have no resemblance with 
each other. Upon such occasions as fell into their cogni- 
zance. I am engaged with preparing for a journey. We 
profit from experience. He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court. Expert about deceiving. The Romans 
reduced the world to their own power. He provided 
them in every thing. He seems to have a taste of such 
studies. You are conversant with that science. He is 
more conversant in men of science than in politicians. 
These are exceptions to the general rule. He died for 
thirst. He died of the sword. He is glad of calamities. 
She is glad at his company. 

He saw your brother, and inquired from him for his 
friend's health. He was charged on being accessary to 
the murder. This is the first time we have been indulged 
in such a luxury. He indulges himself with the most 
pernicious habits. I hope I do not intrude into you. He 
will suffer no one to intrude upon his house. Is that a 
copy after nature ? If you copy from your father's ex- 
ample, you will do well. He has never been reconciled 
with his lot. How can such conduct be reconciled to the 
principles he professes? It is proper that the people 
should be taxed with the support of government. Can- 
not you prevail over your father to pay us a visit ? The 
enemy prevailed upon us by superior force. Take care 
to protect yourself from the dangers which threaten you. 
The walls protected us against the fire of the enemy. He 
has now become familiar to the rules of grammar. Your 
countenance is familiar with me. All his means were 
vested with trade. The office of judge and advocate 
should not be vested with the same person. 



§ 78. syntax. 123 

§ 78. Rule XXIX. In the use of verbs and 
words that in point of time relate to each other ^ the 
order of time must be observed ; as, " I have known 
him these many years ; " not, " I know him these 
many years." 

Remark. The particular tense necessary to be used must depend 
upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases. 
But it may be proper to observe, 

Observation 1. An observation which is always true must be ex- 
pressed in the present tense j as, The stoics believed that " all crimes 
are equal." 

Obs. 2. The perfect, and not the present tense, should be used in 
connexion with words denoting an extent of time continued to the pre- 
sent ; thus, " They continue with me now three days," should be 
" have continued,'* &c. 

Obs. 3. The perfect tense ought never to be used in connexion with 
words which express past time; thus, "I have formerly mentioned 
his attachment to study," should be " I formerly mentioned," &c. 

Obs. 4. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can, 
should never be associated in the same sentence ; and care must be 
taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in the same tense with 
the antecedent verb ; thus, "I may or can do it now, if I choose ; " 
" I might or could do it now, if I chose; " " I shall or toill do it, when 
I can ; " " I may do it, if I can ; " " I once could do it, but I would 
not ; " "I would have done it then, but I could not." " I mention it to 
him, that he may stop if he choose ; " " I mentioned it to him, that he 
might stop if he chose;" "I have mentioned it to him, that he may 
stop ; " "I had mentioned it to him, that he might stop ; " "I had 
mentioned it to him, that he might have stopped, had he chosen. 

Note 1. When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty, § 20, 
4, it may be followed by the present ; as, " You should study that you may be- 
come learned." 

Note 2. The verb had is sometimes improperly used for would; thus, " I had 
rather do it," should be, ll I would rather do it." 

Note 3. Would and should are sometimes, in common language, used as if 
they were almost expletives ; thus, " It would seem," for " It seems." 

Obs. 5. The indicative present is frequently used after the words 
when, till, before, as scqji as, after, to express the relative time of a 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 78. 

Rule XXIX. Continued,, 

future action ; (§ 24, 1,4,) as, " When he comes, he will be welcome." 
When placed before the perfect indicative, they denote the completion 
of a future action, or event ; as, "He will never be better till he has 
felt the pangs of poverty." 

Obs. 6. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present tense, 
when it expresses what is contemporary in point of timew 7 ith its gov- 
erning verb, or subsequent to it ; as, " He appeared to be a man of let- 
ters ; " " The Apostles were determined to preach the gospel." 

Obs. 7. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is 
antecedent to the time of the governing verb ; as, " Romulus is said to 
have founded Rome." 

EXERCISES. 

1. The doctor said, in his lecture, that fever always pro- 
duced thirst. The philosopher said that heat always ex- 
panded metals. He said that truth was immutable. 

2. I know the family more than twenty years, I am 
now at school six months. My brother was sick four weeks, 
and is no better. He tells lies long enough. 

3. He has lately lost an only son. He has been for- 
merly very disorderly. I have been at London last year, 
and seen the king last summer. I have once or twice told 
the story to our friend. He has done it before. 

4. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in 
that part particular. Ye will not come to me that ye might 
have life. Be wise and good that you might be happy. 
He was told his danger, that he may shun it. 

(Note 1.) We should respect those persons because 
they continued long attached to us. He should study dili- 
gently that he might become learned. 2. I had rather go 
now than afterwards. He had better do it soon. 

5. We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As 
soon as he shall return, we will^ recommence our studies. 
A prisoner is not accounted guilty, till he be convicted. 

6. From the little conversation I had with him, he ap- 
peared to have been a man of learning. Our friends in- 
tended to have met us. He was afraid he would have died , 

7. Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an ex- 
tensive building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is said 
to be born in the 926th year before Christ. 



§ 79. SYNTAX. 125 

§ 79. Rule XXX. When a member of a sen- 
tence refers to two different clauses, it should be 
equally applicable to both ; as, He has not been, 
and cannot be, censured for such conduct. 

This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two 
comparisons of a different nature and government. Thus, "He was 
more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio.'' Here " as Cin- 
thio, is applicable to the clause "so much admired," but cannot be 
connected with "more beloved? In such sentences, the proper way is 
to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the 
second understood ; as, "He was more beloved than Cinthio j but not 
so much admired'' (as Cinthio.) 

A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement, should 
be carefully attended to. 

EXERCISES. 

This dedication may serve for almost any book that 
has, or ever shall be published. Will it be urged that 
these books are as old, or even older than tradition. He 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as 
his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more 
valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so per- 
plexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done to- 
day. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspected 
so much dissimulation. The intentions of some of these 
philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably were 
good. The reward is due, and it has already, or will 
hereafter be given to him. This book is preferable and 
cheaper than the other. He either has, or will obtain the 
prize. He acted both suitably and consistently with his 
profession. The first proposal was essentially different 
and inferior to the second... He contrives better, but does 
not execute so well as his brother. There are principles 
in man which ever have, and ever will incline him to of- 
fend. The greatest masters of critical learning, differ 
and contend against one another. The winter has not, 
and probably will not be so severe as was expected. He 
is more friendly in his disposition, but not so distinguished 
for talents, as his brother. 

12* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 80 

§ 80. Rule XXXI. 1. A substantive with a par- 
ticiple, forming an independent member of a sen- 
tence, is put in the nominative case absolute ; as ; 
" He (not him) destroyed, all this will soon follow." 

2. The person or thing addressed, without a verb, 
is put in the nominative independent ; as, Plato, 
thou reasonest well. I am, Sir, your humble servant. 

Obs. 1. In the case absolute, as the nominative and objective cases 
of nouns have the same form, there is liability to error only in the use 
of pronouns. 

2, The substantive is sometimes understood ; as, Generally speak- 
ing, i. e. We. His conduct, viewing it in the most favourable light, 
reflects discredit on his character, i. e. we, men, or a person, viewing 
it, &c. 

3. The infinitive mood is used absolutely to express the same idea ; 
as, To speak generally ; To view it in its most favourable light. See 
§ 67, Rem. 2. 

EXERCISES. 

He made as wise proverbs as any body since, him on- 
ly excepted. Them descending the ladder, fell. Whom 
being dead, we shall come. But them being absent, we 
cannot come to a determination. 

• Whose grey top 



Shall tremble, him descending. 

The bleating sheep with my complaints agree, 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thea 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the sewing train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

So great iEneas rushes to the fight, 

Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold, 

Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grown old. 



§ 81 SYNTAX. 127 

§ 81. Rule. XXXII. The Article A is used be- 
fore nouns in the singular number only. The is 
used before nouns in both numbers. A is indefinite. 

The is definite. (§4.) 

It is impossible to give a precise rule for the use of the article in every 
case. The best general rule is to observe what the sense requires. 
The following usages may be noticed. 

1. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole spe- 
cies ; as, Man is mortal ; and before the names of minerals, metals, 
arts, &c Some nouns denoting the species, have the article always 
prefixed ; as, The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat. The 
lion is a noble animal. 

2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no article 
when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a better reader 
than writer. 

3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the same 
subject, the article should be placed before the first, and omitted before 
the rest; as, A red and white rose, i. e. a rose, some parts of which 
are red, and others white. But when the adjectives, or epithets be- 
long to different subjects, the article should be prefixed to each ; as, a 
red and a white rose, i. e. a red rose and a white rose. " Johnson the 
bookseller and stationer," indicates that the bookseller and the sta- 
tioner are epithets belonging to the same person; "the bookseller 
and the stationer " would indicate that they belong to different per- 
sons. 

Note. The same remark may be made respecting the demonstrative pronouns ; 
as, "That great and good man," means only one man. That great and that 
good man, means two ; the one great, and the other good. 

4. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made, by the use or 
omission of the article a before the words few, little. If I say, "He 
behaved with a little reverence," the expression is positive, and implies 
a degree of praise. But if I say, " He behaved with little reverence,'* 
the expression is negative, and implies a degree of blame. 

5. A has sometimes the meaning of every or each ; as, twelve shillings 
a dozen; two hundred pounds ayear ; i. e. every dozen, every year. 

6. The antecedent to a restrictive clause is preceded by the definite ar- 
ticle ; as, "All the pupils that were present did well." 

7. The is sometimes used before the comparative and superlative de- 
grees both of adverbs and adjectives ; as, The more I study grammar ifc« 
better I like it. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 81 

Rule XXXII. Continued. 

EXERCISES 
ON THE IMPROPER USE AND OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES. 

1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of the 
creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed 
into errors. We must act our part with a constancy, though 
reward of our constancy be distant. There are some evils 
of life which equally affect prince and people. Purity has 
its seat in the heart, but extends its influence over so much 
of outward conduct as to form the great and material part 
of a character. At worst I could incur but a gentle repri- 
mand. The profligate man is seldom or never found to 
be the good husband, the good father, or the beneficent 
neighbour. 

2. A man may be a better soldier than a logician. 
There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better 
servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as a his- 
torian. 

3. Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweller from Lon- 
don, was of the party. A red and a white flag was dis- 
played from the tower. A beautiful stream flows between 
the new and old mansion. A hot and cold spring were 
found in the same neighbourhood. The young and old 
man seem to be on good terms. The bill equally concerns 
the manufacturer and consumer. 

4. He has been much censured for paying a little atten- 
tion to his business. So bold a breach of order called for 
little severity in punishing the offender. 

5. A shilling for every dozen is a moderate price. 1 
would not undertake to walk twenty miles each day for three 
months. A guinea every week. 

6. Persons who suffered by this calamity, have been 
much commiserated. Foreign travel, and things which he 
nas seen, have enlarged his views. The proprietors are 
responsible for all parcels that are committed to their care. 
All persons who were consulted, were of this opinion. 
Members who do not appear, must be fined. 



$ 52. SYNTAX. 129 

§ 82. Rule XXXIII. An ellipsis or omission 
of words is admissible, when they can be supplied 
in the mind with such certainty and readiness as 
not to obscure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, 
He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and 
he was a good man ; we say, He was a learned, wise, 
and good man. 

Obs. It may be regarded as a rule proper to be kept steadily in view, 
that the fewer the words by which we can express our ideas, the bet- 
ter, provided the meaning be brought clearly out. 

Rem. The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used alone ; 
as, We have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it. 

The following phrases are elliptical : " To let oat blood." " To go 
a hunting;" that is, "To go on a hunting excursion." "I dine at 
one o'clock ;" that is, "I dine at one of the clock." 

EXERCISES. 

He sent me the books and the papers which he promised. 
He has a house and a garden in the country. — These coun- 
sels were the dictates of virtue and the dictates of true ho- 
nour. Such conduct is contrary to the laws of God, and 
to the laws of man. His crimes brought him into extreme 
distress and into extreme perplexity. He was blessed 
with an affectionate father and an affectionate mother 
His reputation and his estate are both lost by gaming. He 
is temperate, he is disinterested,, he is benevolent. This 
is the man whom we met and whom we invited to our 
house. Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence and 
our usefulness to be strengthened and to be confirmed by 
principle. Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward 
our toils and will produce effect beyond our expectation. 
We often commend imprudently as well as censure impru- 
dently. Changes are often taking place in men and in 
manners, in opinions and in customs, in private fortunes 
and in public conduct. He insulted every man and every 
woman in the company. 

(Rem.) He regards his word, but thou dost not regard 
it. They must be punished, and they shall be punished 
We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 83. 

§ 83. Rule XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allotv- 
able when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its 
force, or be attended toith an impropriety ; for ex- 
ample, " We speak that we do know, and testify 
that we have seen," should be, "We speak that 
which we do know, and testify that ivhich we have 



Obs. 1. In general, no word should be omitted that is necessary to the full and 
correct construction, or even harmony of a sentence. Articles, pronouns, and pre- 
positions, should always be repeated when the words with which they stand con 
nected are used emphatically. Even nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, must 
often, under such circumstances, be repeated ; as, Not only the year, but the day 
and the hour were appointed. 

2. It is generally improper (except in poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a rela- 
tive ; and always to omit a relative when of the nominative case. 

3. The article should be repeated, when a different form of it is required ; as, 
A horse and an ass. 

EXERCISES. 

I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. His honour, 
interest, religion, were all embarked in this undertaking* 
The more I see of his conduct I like him better. It is not 
only the duty but interest of young persons to be studious 
and diligent. Without firmness, nothing that is great can 
be undertaken ; that is difficult or hazardous, accomplished. 
That species of commerce will produce great gain or loss. 
Many days and even weeks pass away unimproved. The 
people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. 
I have purchased a house and orchard. His conduct is 
not scandalous, and that is the best can be said of it. 
The captain had several men died in his ship of scurvy. 
They enjoy also a free constitution and laws. That is a 
property most men have, or at least may attain. *A noble 
spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness of 
soul is not to be cast down. Charles was a man of learn- 
ing, knowledge, and benevolence ; and what is more, a 
true christian. 



* "A noble spirit," &c, should be, "A man of a noble spirit." It would be 
i mnroper to speak of the soul of a spirit. 



§ 84, SYNTAX. 13][ 

§ 84. SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

In syntactical parsing, the pupil should be directed to state the 
parts of speech, and the various accidents belonging to them, as di- 
rected in § 39 ; and in addition to this, to point out the relation in 
which each word stands to others with which it is connected in the 
sentence according to the Rules of Syntax. After stating these, 
(which should always be done in the same order, and in as few 
words as possible,) he should be requested to assign a reason for 
every thing contained in his statement, in some such manner as the 
following. 

1. Method of Syntactical Parsing, exemplified in 
each of the Parts of Speech. 

1. is an Article, definite, (indefinite,) here put before the 

noun , 

Quest. What is the use of this article ? why definite ? ( — indefi- 
nite?) 

&ns. It is put before 1 ) shew the extent of its meaning. 

Because it points oui a particular——, (Because it 
does not, &c.) 

2. is a Noun, masc* (fem. neut.) sing, (pi.) the nom. 

(poss. obj.) — is the nom. to the verb (is governed by 

according to Rule ) 

Quest How do you know it is a noun ? — masc. ? — sing. ? — the 

nom? 
Ans. Because it is the name of a thing, — is of the male sex, — de- 
notes but one — is the subject of the verb , or, is the 

person (or thing) spoken of. 

3. is an Adjective, positive degree, is compared regularly, 

(irregularly, — is not compared,) qualifies 



* In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to repeat the 
words, "gender," "number," " mood," " tense ;" thus, masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, &c. ; the meaning being sufficiently indicated by the terms, mascu 
line, feminine, neuter — singular, plural — indicative, potential, &c— present, past, 
future, &c. ; and it has the advantage of saving much time. For the same reason, 
it may be proper to omit the terms, " proper" and " common," before nouns, 
and the conjugation of all regular verbs. When the verb is passive, parse thus. 
" A verb trans, in the passive voice, regular, irregular," &c. See § 19, Obs. 7 * 
and also in the following " Specimen," No. 2, questions may be put, and an- 
swers rendered as here. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 84. 

Quest. How do you know it is an adjective ? (why not compar- 
ed?) 

Arts, Because it expresses a quality of Because it denotes, &c> 

see § 13, Obs. 4. 

4. i s a Personal Pronoun, 1st. person, (2d or 3d) masc. 

(fem.) sing, thenom. (poss. obj.) is the nom. to (is 

gov'd by R. ) 

Quest, How do you know it is a pronoun? — is the first pers.? 
(2d ?— -3d ?)— masc. ?— sing. ?— the nom. ? Decline it. 

Jlns. Because it stands instead of a noun, viz. , it denotes the 

person speaking, (spoken to, — spoken of,) — is of the male 
sex, — denotes one, — is the subject of the verb — — 

is a Relative Pronoun, 1st. pers. (2d. 3d.) masc. — sing. — the 

nom. ( — the objective governed by R. — — ) — -, 

agrees with its antecedent ■ R. xi. " The relative 

agrees, &c." 

Quest How do you know it is a relative?- of the 1st pers.? (2d? 
3d ?)-masc. ? — sing. ? — the nom. ? 

Ans. Because it relates to its antecedent, Because its 

antecedent is the 1st pers- (2d. -—3d.) — is masc. — is 

sing. Because it is the subject of the verb 

5. is a Verb trans., (intransitive) (irreg. conjugated thus) in the 

— tense, — mood, 1st pers. (2d. 3d.) — sing, (pi.) agrees 
with its nom. j Rule T. " A verb must agree, &c. J ' 

Quest. How do you know it is a verb ? transitive ? (intransitive ?) 
regular ? (irreg. ? ) of the — person ? 

J&ns, Because it affirms of its nom. : Because it expresses an 

act done to an object, or, it admits an objective after it, 
(intr. because it does not express an act done to an ob- 
ject; or, it does not admit an objective after it) "reg." 
because its imperfect tense and perfect participle end in ed 
(irreg. because they do not end in ed) " 1st pers. sing, or 

pi." (2d or 3d. pers. sing, or pi.) because its nom. is 

in the 1st pers., &c, according to Rule I. " A verb must 
agree, &c." 
6, -=— is an Adverb, and modifies 



§ 84. SYNTAX. 133 

Quest. How do you know it is an adverb ? Is it compared ? com- 
pare it. 

Ans. Because it modifies the meaning of the verb adjec- 
tive , &c. 

7. is a Preposition. Quest. How do you know ? Ans. Be- 
cause it expresses the relation in which the noun stands 

to the noun ; (or the verb ). 

8. is an Interjection? Because it expresses a sudden emotion 

9. is a Conjunction, Because it connects the words 

and ; or the sentences and 

2. SPECIMEN OP SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

Psalm cxi. 10. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning 
of wisdom, and a good understanding have all they that do 
his commandments : His praise endureth forever." 

The is the definite article, put before fear. 

Fear is a noun, neuter, singular, and is the nominative to (or subject 
of) is. 

Of is a preposition, it expresses the relation between fear and Lord. 

Lord is a noun, masculine, singular, the objective governed by of 
Rule hi. " Prepositions govern," &c. 

Is is a verb, intrans., irregular — am, was, been; it is in the present, 
indicative, third person singular, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive fear. Rule i. " A verb agrees," &c. 

Beginning is a noun, neuter, singular, in the nominative ; it is put 
after is, in the same case with fear. Rule xm. 

And is a conjunction, (copulative ;) it connects the two simple sen 
tences, " The fear of the Lord," &c. and " a good under- 
standing," &c. (The connexion here being between the 
simple sentences, and not between any verbs, or nouns, or 
pronouns, in them, the Rule § 69 does not apply.) 

A is the indefinite article, put before understanding. 

Good is an adjective, positive degree, qualifies understanding, and is 
compared irregularly, thus, Good, better, best. 

Understanding is a noun, neuter, singular, in the objective, governed 
by have. Ruls n. " An active verb," &c. 
13 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 85 

Haveis a verD transitive, irregular — have, had, had ; — in the present indi- 
cative, active, third person plural, agreeing with they. Rule i. 
"A verb must agree," &c. 

All is an adjective pronoun, (indefinite ;) qualifies they. 

They is a substantive pronoun, third person, masculine, plural, in the 
nominative ; is the nominative to have, and stands for men. 
Rule x. It is thus declined, &c. 

That is a relative pronoun, here used for who, according to Rule xl 
Rem. 3. It is related to they as its antecedent. 

Do is a verb transitive, irregular— do, did, done ; — it is in the present, indi- 
cative, active, third person, plural, and agrees with that. 
Rule I. "A verb must agree," &c. 

His is an adjective pronoun (possessive,) agrees with commandments. 

Commandments is a noun, neuter, plural, in the objective, governed by 
do. Rule II. " A transitive verb," &c 

Praise is a noun, neuter, singular, the nominative ; is the nominative 
to endureik. * 

Endureth is a verb intransitive, regular, — in the present, indicative, ac- 
tive, — third person singular, and agrees with praise. Rule I 
"A verb agree?," &c. 

Forever is an adverb, and modifies endureth. Rule xxiv. 

§ 85. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

ON THE KULES OF SYNTAX. 

Note. — The following exercises, after being corrected, or in the 
time of correcting, may be used as exercises in Syntactical Parsing. 

1. John writes pretty. I shall never do so no more. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you pre- 
sent at last meeting ? He need not be in so much haste. 
He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him whom they 
seek is in the house. George or I is the person. They 
or he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty 
men. Those set of books was a valuable present. That 
pillar is sixty foot high, His conduct evinced the most 
extreme vanity. These trees are remarkable tall. He 
acted bolder than was expected. This is he who I gave 
the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. W ho do you 
lodge with now ? He was born at London, but he died in 
Bath. If he be sincere I am satisfied. Her father and 



S>ROMIS.] SYNTAX. 135 

her were at church. The master requested hirn and I to 
read more distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flat- 
terers flatter as long, and no longer than they have expec- 
tations of gain. John told the same story as you toid. 
This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 

2. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of 
pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of 
Jesse Was the youngest of his brothers. You was very 
kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does thou think 
of him now? James is one of those boys that was kept 
in at school, for bad behaviour. Thou, James, did deny 
the deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. 
We need not to be afraid. He expected to have gained 
more by the bargain. You should drink plenty of goat 
milk. It was him who spoke first. Do you like ass 
milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did you buy your 
grammar from? If one takes a wrong method at first 
setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man nor 
woman were present. I am more taller than you. She 
is the same lady who sang so sweetly. After the most 
straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not 
thy wickedness great? and thine iniquities infinite? — 
There was more sophists than one. H a person have 
lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some expe- 
rience. If this were his meaning, the prediction has fail- 
ed. Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. 
His associates in wickedness will not fail to mark the al- 
teration of his conduct. Thy rod and thy staff they com^ 
fort me. 

3. And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no 
man, save Jesus only. Strive not with a man without 
cause, if he have done thee no harm. I wrote to, and 
cautioned the captain against it. Now both the chief 
priests and Pharisees had given a commandment, that if 
any man knew where he were, he should show it, that 
they might take him, The girl, her book is torn in pieces. 
It is not me who he is in love with. He which com- 
mands himself, commands the whole world. Nothing is 
more lovelier than virtue. 

4. The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor* — 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMISE 

Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have 
drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. He is taller than 
me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and con- 
tentment consists neither in beauty or riches, but in the 
favor of God. After who is the King of Israel come 
out ? The reciprocations of love and friendship between 
he and I, have been many and sincere. Abuse of mer- 
cies ripen us for judgment. Peter and John is not at 
school to-day. Three of them was taken into custody. 
To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is commenda- 
ble. The enemies who we have most to fear are those 
of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned the most con- 
summate warrior which Rome could then produce. Sup- 
pose life never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may 
still be made. 

5. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell 
me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the 
scholars is reading. Trust not him, whom, you know, 
is dishonest. I love no interests but that of truth and 
virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts of the heart 
are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking 
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two 
others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the 
midst. None can be blamed for taking care of his health. 

6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. He 
that is diligent you should commend. There was an 
earthquake which made the earth to tremble. And God 
said to Solomon, Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto 
thee, &c. I cannot commend him for justifying hisself 
when he knows that his conduct was so very improper. 
He was very much made on at school. Though he were 
a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 
suffered. If he is alone tell him the news ; but if there 
is any body with him, do not tell him. They ride faster 
than us. Though the measure be mysterious, it is wor- 
thy of attention. If he does but approve my endeavors^ 
it will be an ample reward. Was it him who came last ? 
Yes, it was him. 

For ever in this humble cell, 
Let thee and I my fair one dwell. 






PROJIIS.] SYNTAX. 137 

7. Every man should act suitable to his character and 
station in life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I 
only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and the 
bee sets a good example before dronish boys. Neither in 
this world, neither in the world to come. Evil communi- 
cations corrupts good manners. Hannibal was one of the 
greatest geuerals whom the world ever saw. The middle 
station of'life seems to be the most advantageously situated 
for gaining of wisdom. 

8. These are the rules of grammar, by the observing 
which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred upon 
him the title of a duke. My exercises are not well wrote, 
I do not hold my pen well. Grammar teaches us to speak 
proper. She accused her companion for having betrayed 
her. I will not dissent with her. Nothing shall make me 
swerve out of the path of duty and honor. Who shall I 
give it to ? Who are you looking for 1 It is a diminution 
to, or a derogation of their judgment. It fell into their no- 
tice or cognizance. She values herself for her fortune. 
That is a book which I am much pleased with. I have 
been to see the coronation, and a fine sight it was. That 
picture of the emperor's is a very exact resemblance of 
him. Every thing that we here enjoy, change, decay, and 
come to an end. It is not him they blame so much. 

9. No people has more faults than they that pretend to 
have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote 
with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I need not 
explain it. She taught him and I to read. The more 
greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the more dan- 
gerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a compa- 
nion. Each has their own faults, and every one should 
endeavor to correct their own. Let your promises be few. 
and such that you can perform. 

10. His being at an enmity with Caesar and Antony were 
the cause of perpetual discord. Their being forced to their 
books in an age at enmity with all restraint, have been the 
reason why many have hated books all their lives. There 
was a coffee-house at that end of the town, in which seve- 
ral gentlemen used to meet of an evening. Do not despise 
the state of the poor, lest it becomes your own condition. 

13* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. [PROMTS, 

It was his duty to have interposed his authority in an affair 
of so much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing 
good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and 
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, were 
invited to pass an evening when they thought fit. The 
winter has not been so severe as we expected it to have 
been. The rest (of the stars) in circuit walls this universe. 
Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast 
laid him. 

11. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them rob- 
bery or murder. She and you were not mistaken in her 
conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my brother, are 
employed in their respective occupations. He repents 
him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and not him, 
that wrote it. Art thou him ? I shall take care that no 
one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who approves of 
wholesome discipline, and who recommend it to others ; 
but I am not a person who promotes severity, or who ob- 
ject to mild and generous treatment. This Jackanapes 
has hit me in a right place enough. Prosperity, as truly 
asserted by Seneca, it very much obstructs the knowledge 
of ourselves. To do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, it is our duty. This grammar was pur- 
chased at Ogle's the bookseller's. The council was not 
unanimous. 

12. Who spilt the ink upon the table ? Him. Who lost 
this book? Me. Whose pen is this? Johns. There is 
in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. And he 
spitted on the ground and anointed his eyes. Had I never 
seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship Mary and Ann 
were restored to their owners. If we consult the improve- 
ment of mind, or the health of body, it is well known exer- 
cise is the great instrument for promoting both. A man 
may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as 
read them in a description. 

13. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the 
fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit. A pru- 
dent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you speak of, 
it cost me five hundred pounds. Did I not tell thee, O 
thee infamous wretch ! that thou wouidst bring me to ruin? 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 139 

Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opi- 
nion also, favored his cause. It was the men's, women's, 
and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. That is the 
eldest son of the King of England's. Lord Feversham's 
the general's tent. This palace had been the Grand Sul- 
tan's Mahomet's. They did not every man cast away the 
abomination of their eyes. 

14. * I am purposed. He is arrived. They were de- 
serted from their regiment. Whose works are these ? 
They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The mighty 
rivals are now at length agreed. The time of William 
making the experiment, at length arrived. If we alter the 
situation of any of the words, we shall presently be sensi- 
ble of the melody suffering. This picture of the king's 
does not much resemble him. These pictures of the king 
were sent to him from Italy. He who committed the of- 
fence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who am innocent. 

15. But, Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, 
was not with them when Jesus came. I offer observa- 
tions, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have enabled 
me to make on man. After I visited Europe, I returned 
to America. Clelia is a vain woman, whom, if we do not 
flatter, she will be disgusted. In his conduct was treach- 
ery, and in his words faithless professions. The orators 
did not forget to enlarge themselves on so popular a sub- 
ject. He acted conformable with his instructions, and can- 
not be censured justly. 

16. No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor 
behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of 
toleration. They were studious to ingratiate with those 
who it was dishonorable to favor. The house framed a 
remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the 
king's prerogative. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or 
the great. Many would exchange gladly their honors, 
beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, 
which thou art now dissatisfied with. High hopes, and 



* Rule. — It is improper to use a neuter verb in the passive form. Thus, I am 

purposed — He is arrived ; should be, I have purposed — He has arrived From 

this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it is allowable to say, He is come, 
btxe is gone, &c. § 49, IT. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

florid views, is a great enemy to tranquillity. Many per- 
sons will not believe but what they are free from prejudices. 
I will lay me down in peace, and take my rest. This word 
I have only found in Spencer. The king being apprized 
of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 

17. A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken 
the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself in 
such a cruel amusement. They admired the country- 
man's, as they called him, candor and uprightness. The 
pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those of another. 
The court of Spain, who gave the order, were not aware of 
the consequences. There was much spoke and wrote on 
each side of the question ; but I have chose to suspend my 
decision. 

18. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion 
sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a 
poor pitiable speck of perishable earth ; this opens for them 
a prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, how- 
soever little they may be regarded, they are the best means 
of preserving health. To despise others on account of 
their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth, are dis- 
positions highly culpable. This task was the easier per- 
formed, from the cheerfulness with which he engaged 
in it. These counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the 
dictates of true honor. As his misfortunes were the fruit 
of his own obstinacy, a few persons pitied him. And they 
were judged every man according to their works. Riches 
is the bane of human happiness. I wrote to my brother 
before I received his letter. 

19. When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time 
in doubt whether it could be him or not. Are you living 
contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was very 
numerous. Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship 
with thee, which frameth mischief by a law ? Where 
is the security that evil habits will be ever broken 1 They 
each bring material to the place. Nor let no comforter 
delight my ear. She was six years older than him. 
They were obliged to contribute more than us. The Ba- 
rons had little more to rely on, besides the power of their 
families. The sewers (shores) must be kept so clear, 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 3 41 

as the water may ran away. Such among us who fol- 
low that profession. No body is so sanguine to hope for 
it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agreeable 
to your request I send this letter. She is exceeding fair. 
Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There was no 
other book but this. He died by a fever. Among whom 
was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James. 
My sister and I waited till they were called. The army 
were drawn up in haste. The public is respectfully in- 
formed that, &c. The friends and amusements which 
he preferred corrupted his morals. Each must answer 
for themselves. Henry, though at first he showed an un- 
willingness, yet afterwards he granted his request. 

20. Him and her live very happily together. She in- 
vited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered such 
cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard them. 
Maria is not as clever as her sister Ann. Though he 
promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him. The 
full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, but he 
opened to them the gate of paradise. It rendered the 
progress very slow of the new invention. This book is 
Thomas', that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has been 
the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee well, 
James. Who, who has the judgment of a man, would 
have drawn such an inference ? George was the most 
diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have observed 
some children to use deceit. He durst not to displease 
his master. The hopeless delinquents might, each in their 
turn, adopt the expostulatory language of Job. Several 
of our English words, some centuries ago, had different 
meanings to those they have now. And I was afraid, 
and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo, there thou 
hast that is thine. With this booty he made off to a dis- 
tant part of the country, where he had reason to believe 
that neither he nor his master were known. Thine is 
the kingdom, the power, and the glory. I have been at 
London. 

21 . Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we 
most esteem ? — he who strives to correct his scholars by 
prudent advice and motives of honor, or another who will 
lash them severely for not repeating their lessons as they 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. f PROMTS. 

ought ? The blessing of the Lord it maketh rich, and 
he addeth no sorrow with it. For if there be first a wil- 
ling mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, 
and not according to that he hath not. If a brother or 
a sister be naked and destitute of daily food, and one of 
you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and 
filled ; notwithstanding if ye give them not those things 
which are needful to the body ; what doth it profit ? 

22. Bat she always behaved with great severity to 
her maids ; and if any of them were negligent of their 
duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would serve 
her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no master 
to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the writings of 
Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons from 
the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the 
age. They that honor me, I will honor. For the poor 
always ye have with you. 

23. The first Christians of the Gentile world made a 
simple and entire transition from a state as bad, if not 
worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity 
of the New Testament. 

And he said unto Gideon, every one that lappeth of 
the water with his tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt 
thou set by himself. 

The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as was 
expected, 

Milton seems to have been well acquainted with his 
own genius, and to know what it was that nature had 
bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon others. 

24. And on the morrow, because he would have known 
the certainty wherefore he was accused*)* by the Jews, 
he loosed him from his bonds. 

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, 
Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned. 
The Cretan javelin reached him from afar, 
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. 

Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy 

* The Possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this quo- 
tation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have 
been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Socrateses, the Platoes, an<* 
the Confucius es of the age. 

t Accuse requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing. 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 143 

sensation, and brings always with it a mixture of concern 
and compassion. 

He only* promised me a loan of the book for two days. 
I was once thinking to have written a poem, 

25. A very slow child will often be found to get lessons 
by heart as soon as, nay sometimes sooner, than one who 
is ten times as intelligent. 

It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive faculties, 
that we only can attain those powers of conception which 
are essential to taste. 

No. man is fit for free conversation for the inquiry after 
truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be haughty 
and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and dog- 
matical in his opinions : if he be one who always affects 
to outshine all the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; 
if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. 

26. Conversation is the business, and let every one that 
please add their opinion freely. 

The mean suspicious wretch whose bolted door 
Ne'er moved in pity to the wandering poor ; 
With him I left the cup to teach his mind, 
That heaven can bless if mortals will be kind. 

There are many more shining qualities in the mind of man, 
but there is none so useful as discretion. 

Mr. Lock having been introduced by Lord Shaftsbury 
to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halfax, these three 
noblemen, instead of conversing with the philosopher on 
literary subjects, in a very short time sat down to cards. 

BAD ARRANGEMENT. 

27. It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither 
heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their 
bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous and 
contemptible. 

And how can brethren hope to partake of their parent's 
blessing that curse each other. 

The superiority of others over us, though in trivial con- 
cerns, never fails to mortify our vanity, and give us vex- 
ation, as Nicol admirably observes. 

* This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made to express 
other four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMlS. 

Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said among 
themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself he 
cannot save. 

Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only 
persons preserved from the flood. 

It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, 
the wonderful civilities that have passed between the nation 
of authors, and that of readers. 

And they said among themselves, who shall roll us away 
the stone from the door of the sepulchre. And when they 
had looked, they saw that the stone was rolled away : for 
it was very great. 

A great stone that I happened to find, after a long search, 
by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor. 

It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the 
point. 

BAD ARRANGEMENT.* 

28. The senate of Rome ordered that no part of it 
should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so 
that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood at 
this day. 

Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after 
the second Punic war, and two after it had been begun. 

Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor Ne- 
ro pronounced his funeral oration, and he was canonized 
among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a 
man. 

Galerius abated much of his severities against the Chris- 
tians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts which he 
had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a little 
before his death. 

The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter 
Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus, a man of mo- 
derate fortune, &c. 

But at length, having made his guards accomplices in 
their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at 
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom 



* The exercises under this head are all extracted from the onSavo edition of 
Goldsmith's Roman History, from which many more might be obtained 



§ 86. SYNTAX. 145 

he had made his partner in the empire, without any op- 
position. 

Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and terri- 
ble nation of Germany, that had invaded Italy, in three 
several engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

29. You suppose him younger-than I. 

This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than I am t 
or that you suppose him to be younger than I suppose him to be. 

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first 
opened the way into Asia. 

Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, 
and means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served 
himself at the same tin^. This, however, is not the meaning of the 
passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. "Parme- 
nio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander with great 
fidelity, but he had served Alexander himself and was the first that 
opened the way for him into Asia." 

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the em- 
peror Justinian the First, a man of rare valor. 

Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we 
should suppose, from the arrangement of the words ; but this is not 
the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should have stood 
thus, " Belisarius, a man of rare valor, was general of all the forces 
under the emperor Justinian the First." 

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his 
friends. 

Whether were they his own friends or his fathers whom Lisias 
promised never to abandon ? If his own, it should be, Lisias pro- 
mised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If his 
father's, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father, I will 
never abandon your friends. 

§ 88. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Many writers use a plural noun after the second of 
two numeral adjectives, thus, " The first and second pages 
are torn." According to analogy it should rather be, 
The first and second page. Thus we say, " The new 
and the old world," " Ancient and modern history," &e. 

14 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 86. 

2. Another,— One, — Every. 

Another corresponds to one ; but not to some, nor to 
every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer of verses 
to another" should be, " From one writer of verses to 
another. 55 " At some hour or another," should be, " At 
some hour or other." 

One is often used in familiar phrases, (like on in 
French,) for we, or any one of us, indiscriminately ; thus, 
" One is often more influenced by example than by pre- 
cept." The verb and pronoun with which one agrees, 
should be singular ; Thus, " If one take a wrong method 
at first, it will lead them astray ;" should be, " it will 
lead one astray, or him astray. 

3. As follows— As regards, — As appears, fyc. 

Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray regard these, and seve- 
ral other expressions of a similar kind, as impersonal 
verbs, and are of opinion that they should always be used 
in the singular. This, however, is contrary to the es- 
tablished usage of our best writers, who frequently use 
them in the plural form ; as, " The circumstances were 
as follow." Other Grammarians, and particularly Dr. 
Crombie, (Etymology p. 389 et seq.) consider as to be 
a relative pronoun, and that the verb following it should 
be singular or plural, according as its antecedent is in the 
singular or plural number, Thus, " His description was as 
follows," i. e. " was this which follows." " His words 
were as follow," i. e. " were those which follow." Nei- 
ther of these explanations seems to be entirely satisfac- 
tory. It is perhaps better to regard such phrases as ellip- 
tical, and in parsing to supply the ellipsis thus, "The 
words w ere such as those which follow," or, " were the 
same as those which follow," 

As concerns, as regards, used commonly in the singu- 
lar, are also elliptical, and may be supplied thus, "As it 
concerns," or "As far as it concerns, regards," &c, as 
(it) appears, is always in the singular. In the plural, 
the noun or pronoun is commonly expressed thus, " These 
things as they " concern," or, " as far as they concern us" 
— or, " As far as these things concern us," d&c. In this 
way, there is no necessity for considering these expres- 



§ 86* SYNTAX. 147 

sions as impersonal verbs, nor for depriving as of its con- 
junctive character. 

4. tSo and Such. 

When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the 
word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is 
seldom found." But when degree is signified, we use the 
word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." Yet 
so is hardly ever used before an adjective followed by a 
plural noun. In this case, such is used instead of it, to 
express degree. Thus, we say, " Such beautiful flowers I 
have seldom seen," not, " so beautiful flowers." Still it 
would be correct to say, " I have never seen flowers so 
beautiful." 

5. Disappointed of — Disappointed in. 

We are disappointed of a thing when we expect it and 

do not get it — and disappointed in it, when we have it and 

it does not answer our expectations. Hence a person 

may be disappointed in that which he is not disappointed of. 

6. Taste of. and Taste for. 

A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a 
taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment ; as, 
11 When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, 
we can have no relish for those of vice," " He had a taste 
for such studies, and pursued them earnestly." 
7. Position of Adjectives. 

Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 
Thus, it is incorrect to say, "a new pair of shoes," " a 
fine field of corn,'' " a good glass of wine," &c. because 
the adjectives in these sentences qualify " shoes," " corn," 
" wine," and not " pair," " field," " glass," with which they 
are joined. The phrases should be, " A pair of new shoes." 
"A field of fine corn." " A glass of good wine." 

8. Bui that. 
But is often improperly used before thai, after words 
which imply doubt or fear ; as, u 1 doubt not hut that he 
will fulfil his promise." This would seem to say, " I doubt 
nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his pro- 
mise ; " whereas, that is the very thing not doubted. Re- 
move the but t and you preserve the sense. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §86 

9. Older, Oldest, — Elder, Eldest. 

Older and oldest refer to maturity of age, elder and eldest 
to priority of right by birth. Thus, " Homer is an oldei 
author than Virgil." < ; Being the eldest of the family, he 
succeeded to the estate," 
10. Farther and Farthest, — Further and Furthest. 

Farther and farthest denote place or distance : Further 
and furthest, quantity or addition ; as, ' 4 The farther they 
advanced, the more interesting was the scene." " I have 
nothing further to say on this subject." Farther is the 
comparative, and farthest, the superlative of far ; Further 
and furthest, of fore or forth. 

11. Later, latest, — Latter, last, — Next, nearest. 
Later and latest, compared from late, have respect to 
time ; latter and last, to place or position, and are employed 
without so direct a reference to comparison. Next refers 
either to time or place ; nearest, to place only. 
12. Past, passed. 
Past is an adjective ; passed, the past tense or perfect 
participle of the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently 
done, to be confounded with each other. 

13. Lay, lie, — Set, sit. 
Lay and lie are distinct in meaning and application, and 
cannot be used indiscriminately. The use of the former 
for the latter is an error exceedingly prevalent, and should 
be corrected. Thus we constantly hear such expressions 
as, " It lays on the table." " It laid there yesterday." 
Lie is a neuter verb ; Lay is active, and means to make lie. 
The past tense of lie, is lay, and perf. participle, lain. The 
past tense of lay, is laid, and perf. participle, laid. Thus, 
The bricklayer lays bricks, and being laid, tbey lie. The 
book lies on the shelf; it was laid there a week ago, and 
has lain ever since. The same distinction should be ob- 
served between set and sit. 

14. " Be that as it will," is a common, but inaccurate 
expression. It ought to be, " Be that as it may," or may 
have been. 

15. " Seldom or ever " is not correct. It should be 
seldom or never ; or, seldom if ever. 



87. 



SYNTAX. 



149 



§ 87. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY. 



I should admire to go to sea. 

1 allot upon going. 

The alone God. The alone motive. 

I an y t; you an't ; he anH, &c. 

Jlny manner of means. 

His discourse was approbated. 

To sell at auction. 

He was walking back and forth. 

Part were good, the balance were bad. 

His argument was based on this fact. 

Where be you 1 Here I be. 

The money was ordered paid. 

r would not belittle or demean myself. 

He was paid for his betterments. 

I calculate to leave town soon. 

A chunk of bread. 

A clever* house. 

He conducts to ell. 

He is considerable of a scholar. 

His farm was convenient to mine. 

The creatures^ must be sent to pasture. 

Curious apples; curious cider, &c. 

He is a decent scholar, writer. 

Her situation was distressing to a degree. 

Such conduct was very derogatory. 

A total destitution of capacity. 

The United States, or either of them. 

Equally as well — as good, &c. 

Mr. A B , Esq. 

I think it will eventuate in this. 
I expect X they be. 
I expect he must have died long ago. 
These things are in a bad fix. 
Will you fix these things for me ? 
Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
How do your folks do 1 
What do folks think of it 1 
Will you£Y> by and dine with me? 
Talents of the highest grade. 
Do you love play ? I guess t 1 do. 
You will tell another guess (guise) sto- 
ry soon. 
We may hope the assistance of God. 
A horse colt ; A mare colt. 
It would illy accord. 
When did you come in town. 

In good case ; or kelter. 
Where do you keep ?—put up 7 
A lengthy sermon, &c. 



I should like to go to sea. 

I intend to go. 

The one God. The only motive. 

I am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 

Any means. 

His discourse was approved. 

To sell by auction. 

backwards and forwards. 

. the remainder, or the rest were 

bad. 
His argument was founded on this fact. 
Where are you 1 Here I am. 
The money was ordered to be paid 
I would not degrade myself. 
He was paid for his improvements. 
I intend to leave town soon. 
A piece of bread. 
A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respectably. 
He is a pretty good scholar. 
His farm was contiguous to mine, close 
The cattle must be sent to pasture. 
Excellent apples ; excellent cider, &c. 
He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing. 

was very degrading. 

A total want of capacity. 
The United States, or any of them. 
Equally well, or just as well, &c. 
A B , Esq. 



■ will end, or terminate, in this. 



[ believe they are. 

1 think he must have died, &c. 

in a bad state, or condition. 

Will you put these things in order for me T 
First, secondly, &c. 

How is your family 1 
What do people think of it 1 
Will you go by my house and dine ? 
Talents of the highest order. 
: — there is no doubt of that. 

another kind of story. 

We may hope for the assistance of God. 

A colt : A filly. 

It would ill accord. 

When did you come into town. § 77. 

Obs. 2. 
In good condition, good order. 
At whose house do you stay 1 
A long sermon, &c. 



* The word clever, applied to persons, in the English sense, means active, quicks 
ingenious ; in the American sense, of a kind, obliging disposition. 

t This word, in the northern states, is a general term for horses, catLe, sheep 
swine, &c. 

I Expect is properly applied to things to come ; guess, to things uncertain 
never to things present, or about which there is no doubt. 

14* 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 



§87. 



Why don't you strike like I do ? 

He is a very likely man. 

Will you loan me a few dollars 1 

I was mad at him. 

Mighty cold ; mighty fine. 

The public are hereby notified.* 

Obnoxious f doctrines. 

He will once in a while get drunk. 

He went up on to the roof. 

What had that ought to be 1 

Over the signature of Junius.; 

He still plead not guilty. 

They are not very plenty. 

He is rather poorly. 

Predicated on former proceedings. 

The work progresses slowly. 

Not proven. 

I was raised in Virginia. 

A committee was raised. 

The price will raise soon. 

1 reckon he will. 

The council resulted, that, &c. 

Such doctrines revolt us. 

A rugged child. 

I sat out on my journey. 

The market is full of sauce. 

You have too much sauce. 

I see him, I seen him yesterday. 

Serious people. 

He is some better than he was. 

I have had a spell of sickness. 

Be spry. He is a springy man. 

He shews much temper^ 

He is an ugly fellow. 

For the construction of wharves. 



as I do, or, like as I do. 

He is a very good looking man. 

■ lend me a few doilars. 

I was angry with him. 
Very cold ; very fine. 
Notice is hereby given. 
Hurtful or offensive doctrines, 

sometimes get drunk. 

He went up to the roof. 

What should that be 1 

Under the signature of Junius. 

pleaded not guilty. 

They arc not very plentiful. 

rather indisposed. 

Founded on former proceedings. 
The work advances slowly. 
Not proved. 
I was brought up in V. 

• was formed or appointed. 

will rise soon. 

I suppose he will. 

came to the conclusion, that, &0 

We revolt at such doctrines. 
A robust or healthy child. 
I set out, &c. 

full of vegetables. 

too much impertinence. 

I saw him yesterday. 
Religious people. 

somewhat better. 

I have been sick for some time 
Be quick. An active man. 

much warmth of temper. 

a fellow of bad disposition. 

— of wharfs. 



* Notify signifies to make known, " to notify the public," therefore, is " to 
make the public known." We notify a thing to a person, and not a person of a 
thing. 

f Obnoxious signifies liable to, and should not be used for hurtful or offensive. 

X On this expression, Pickering remarks : " A few of our writers still counte- 
nance this unwarrantable innovation ; but the principle on which it is defended 
would unsettle the whole language." We might with equal propriety say, 
" Given over my hand and seal." " It is so well known to be the constant prac- 
tice of the best English and American writers to say, ' under a name, and under 
a signature,' that it will hardly be credited that any who speak the English lan- 
guage could have questioned the propriety of it." The term under, in such 
phrases, is figurative, and means, under the sanction, authority, or responsibility 
of. It has nothing to do with the mere relative position of the writing, and the 
name or signature attached to it; — a circumstance in itself of no consequence 
whatever, but which, nevertheless, is all that the term over is capable of expressing. 

|| Temper, in the American sense, n.eans warmth of temper, passion In 
England it means " moderation, coolness." In this sense the words temperate 
and intemperate are always understood. 



.§ 88. SYNTAX. 151 

§ 88. PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, 
by points or stops, in order to convey to the reader 
the exact sense, and assist him in the proper de- 
livery. 

The principal stops are the following : — 

The Comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) 
the period, or full stop ( . ) the note of interroga 
tion ( ? ) the note of exclamation ( ! ) the parenthe- 
sis ( ) and the dash ( — ) 

The comma represents the shortest pause ; the 
semicolon a pause double that of the comma ; the 
colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the period, 
double that of the colon. 

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader 
or speaker. 

By the term adjunct is meant, any number of words added by way 
of modifying or qualifying the principal words ; thus, " Cicero, the 
eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death;" the phrase, the 
eloquent Cicero, is the adjunct of Cicero. 

RULES FOR THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OF A COMPOSITION. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The comma usually separates those parts of a sentence 
which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — A simple sentence, when it is a short one, aamits 
only a period at the end ; as, " No state of life is exempt from 
trouble.'' 

When a simple sentence is a long one, and the nominative case 
is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma must be inserted 
before the verb ; as, " A steady and undivided . attention to one 
object, is a sure mark of superior genius." " The necessity of an 
early acquaintance with history, has always been acknowledged." 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §88. 

Rule 2. — The simple members of a compound sentence are sepa- 
rated by commas ; as, " When the graces of novelty are worn off, 
admiration is succeeded by indifference." " Crafty men contemn 
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." 

But when the members are closely connected, the comma is 
unnecessary; as, "Revelation tells us how we may attain happi- 
ness." 

Rule 3. — Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a 
comma between them when connected by a conjunction ; as, " The 
earth and the moon are planets." "Time brings a gentle and 
powerful opiate to ail misfortunes." " The man of order catches 
and arrests the hours a3 they fly." "By encouraging and ani- 
mating him, he became clever." " Success generally depends on 
acting prudently and vigorously" " We must either live virtuously or 
viciously." 

But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted be- 
tween the words ; as, " Reason, passion answer one great end." "Hs 
is a plain, honest man." 

Rule 4.—- Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or 
adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by commas ; as, 
" Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." " David was a brave, 
wise, and prudent prince." " The sight, the hearing, the feeling, the 
taste, and the smell, are the five natural senses." 

When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma be- 
tween each pair; as, "Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 

Rule 5. — The words used in a direct address, the case absolute, 
a short expression in the manner of a quotation, and the infinitive 
mood absolute when it is not used as a nominative case, should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " My so?; 9 
hear the counsels of thy father." " I remain, Sir, your obedient 
servant." " The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to 
the purposes of improvement." " Plutarch calls lying, the vice oj 
slaves." " To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed future ease and 
reputation." 

Rule 6. — A single name in apposition is not separated by a comma ; 
as, " The apostle Peter ; " " The emperor Antoninus." But when 
such name is accompanied with an adjunct, the adjunct should have a 
comma before and after it ; as, " Augustus, the Roman emperor, was a 



§ 88. SYNTAX. 153 

patron of the fine arts." " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was emi* 
nent for his zeal and knowledge." 

Rule 7. — Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, 
and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other, 
are separated by commas ; thus, " As the hart panteth after the 
water brooks, so doth my soul after thee." " They are sometimeF 
in union with, and sometimes in opposition to, the views of each 
other." 

" Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull, 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 
Sometimes when one word follows the last preposition, a somma 
must not be inserted before it ,♦ as, " He was much attached to, and 
concerned for John." 

When the members of comparative sentences are short, the comma 
is omitted ; as, "How much h titer is wisdom than gold." 

Rule 8. — All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at the beginning, 
middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated from it by commas; 
as, " With gratitude, I remember his goodness to me." " I remember, 
with gratitude, his goodness to me." " His talents, formed for great 
enterprize^, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." " Vices, 
like shadoios, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." 
" I saw the captain, as he is called." 

A comma must also be inserted between the two parts of a sentence, 
which have their natural order inverted ; as, "To God, nothing is im- 
possible j " that is, " Nothing is impossible to God." 

Rule 9. — A comma must be inserted before the relative, when the 
clause immediately after it is used as explanatory of the antecedent 
clause ; as, " He, who disregards the good opinion of the world, must 
be utterly abandoned; " or, lc He must be utterly abandoned, loho dis- 
regards the good opinion of the world." 

But when the relative is so closely connected with its antecedent, 
that it cannot be transposed, a comma must not be inserted before it ; 
as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." " I have 
carefully perused the book which you lent me." 

Rule 10. — When any tense of the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the 
nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
verb by a comma ; as, " The best preservative of health is, to be tem- 
perate in all our gratifications." "To be temperate in all our gratifi- 
cations, is the best preservative of health." 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 88. 

Rule 11. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted ; 
as, " Reading makes a full man ; conference, a ready man ; and writ- 
ing, an exact man." 

Rule 12.— The word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a 
comma ; as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 

Adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, used to connect or introduce 
a new member, must be separated from the preceding part of the sen- 
tence by a comma ; as, " The instructions of adversity may be whole- 
some, though unpleasing." "The wise man seeketh wisdom, but the 
fool despiseth understanding." 

Rule 13. — The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
7iow, lastly, in fact, therefore, wherefore, hoivever, besides, indeed, and 
all other words and phrases of the same kind, must, when considered 
of importance, be separated from the context by a comma, according 
to rule 8th ; as, " Besides, our reputation does not depend on the ca- 
price of man, but on our own good actions." " Lastly, strive to pre- 
serve a conscience void of offence towards God and man." " If the 
spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and 
in autumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, 
riper years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." 

When, however, these phrases are not considered important, 
and particularly in short sentences, the comma is not inserted ; as, 
"There is surely a pleasure in acting kindly." "Idleness cer- 
tainly is the mother of all vices." " He was at last convinced of his 
error." 

* % * The foregoing rules will, it is hoped, be found comprehensive ; yet there 
may be some cases in which the student must rely on his own judgment. 

In composing works for the press, many authors merely insert a period at the 
end of each sentence, and leave the rest to be pointed by the printers, who, from 
their constant practice, are supposed to have acquired a uniform mode of punc 
tuation. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sen- 
tence, which are less closely connected than those which 
are separated by a comma. 

Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a com- 
plete proposition, but is followed by a clause which is added as an 
inference, or to give some explanation, the tw*o parts must be 
separated by a semicolon; as, "Perform your duty faithfully; for 
this will procure you the blessing of heaven." " The orator makes 



§83. 



SYNTAX. 



155 



the truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites them 
to action ; he shews them their impending danger." " Be in peace 
with many ; nevertheless, have but one counsellor of a thousand." 

Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow each other, having 
merely a slight connexion in idea, though in other respects complete 
m themselves, they may be separated by a semicolon ; as, "Every 
thing grows old ; every thing passes away ; every thing disappears." 
" The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents a 
disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind ; 
pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy displays the tender emo- 
tions of the heart." 

OF THE COLON. 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are separa- 
ted by a semicolon, but not so independent as to require a 
period. 

Rule 1. — A colon is used when a member of a sentence is com- 
plete in itself, both in sense and construction, but is followed by some 
additional remark or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though 
not in syntax ; as, " A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he 
can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments he is capa- 
ble of, and were he to live ten thousand more, would be the same 
thing he is at present." "Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no 
study is more important." 

Rule 2. — "When a sentence contains several perfect members 
separated by semicolons, the concluding member requires a colon 
before it ; as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; 
an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; 
informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, 
and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the 
considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity and 
check guilt." 

Rule 3. — Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an 
example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, "Always re- 
member this ancient maxim ; " Know thyself." " The scriptures give 
us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : l God is 
love.' " 

Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the con- 
cluding member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 88. 

colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before 
the concluding member, the colon is to be used ; but when it is ex- 
pressed, the semicolon is used; as, " Apply yourself to learning : it 
will redound to your honour." " Apply yourself to learning ; for it 
will redound to your honour." 

OF THE PERIOD. 
When a sentence is complete, with respect to the con 
struction and the sense intended, a period must be used ; 
as, " God made all things." " By disappointments and 
trials, the violence of our passions is tamed." " In the va- 
rieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the active and 
the passive virtues." 

A period is sometimes inserted between sentences which are con 
nected by conjunctions ; as, " Our position is, that happiness does 
not consist in greatness. And this position we make out by shewing, 
that even what are supposed to be the peculiar advantages of greatness, 
the pleasures of ambition and superiority, are in reality common to all 
conditions. But whether the pursuits of ambition are ever wise, 
whether they contribute more to the happiness or misery of the pur- 
suers, ~is a different question; and a question concerning which we 
may be allowed to entertain great doubt." 

The period must be used after all abbreviations ; as, 
"A. D." "M. A." "Fol." 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 

Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked. 

Admiration (!) or Exdamation, is used to express any sudden emotion of the 

mind. 
Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the body of another 

sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of Parenthesis. 
Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out ; as lov'd for loved. 
Caret (a) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined. 
Hyphen (-) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at 

the beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words ; as. 

Tea-pot ; Father-in-law. 
Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 
Paragraph (U) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject. 
Crotchets ([ ]) or Brackets, are used to enclose a word or sentence which is to 

be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or to correct a mistake, 

or supply some deficiency. 
Quotation (" ") Is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words 



§88. 



SYNTAX. 



157 



Index (93T) is used to point out any thing remarkable. 

R $ is used to connect words which have one common term, or three lines in 
ce \ poetry, having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 

Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted; as, K — g for King. 

Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable; the grave 0) a long. 
Breve ( w ) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Dash ( ) a long. 
Diaeresis (••) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables; as, aerial. 
Asterisk (*)— Obelisk (f)— Double Dagger (J)— and Parallels (||) with small 

letters and figures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of 

the page. 
1* * *) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold 

or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript. 
Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness— a significant pause — an unexpected 

turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as 

in this definition of a dash. 

ABREVIATIONS. 

English. 

A. C. Before Christ 

A. B. Bachelor of Arts (often B. A.) 

A. D. In the year of our Lord 

A. M. Master of AM 

A.M. In the year of the world 

A. M. In the forenoon 

A. U. C. In the year after the building of the city 

B. D. Bachelor of Divinity [ — Rome 

C. P. S. Keeper of the Privy Seal 

C. S. Keeper of the Seal 

D. D. Doctor of Divinity 
e. g. For example 
R. S. S. Fellow of the Royal Society 
R. S. A. S. Fellow of the Royal Society of Anti- 
quaries 

G. R. George the King 

i. e. That is 

J. H. S. Jesus the Saviour of men 

L. L. D. Doctor of Laws 

L. S. Place of the Seal 

Messrs. Gentlemen 

M. D. Doctor of Medicine 

M. S. Sacred to the Memory (or S. M.) 

N. B. Note well : Take notice 

P. M. In the afternoon 

P. S. Postscript, something written after 

Ult. Last, (month) 

&c. And the rest ; and so forth 



Latin. 

Ante Christum* 

Artmm Baccalaureus 

Anno Domini 

Artium Magister 

Anno Munrii 

Ante Meridiem 

Anno Urbis Conditae 

Baccalaureus Divinitatis 

Custos Pr^ati Sigilli 

Gustos Sigilli 

Doctor Divinitatis 

Exempli gratia 

Regiae Societatis Socius 

Regiae Societatis Antiquario- 

rum Socius 
Georgius Rex 
Id est 

Jesus Hominium Salvator 
Legum Doctor 
Locus Sigilli 
Messieurs (French) 
Meriicinae Doctor 
Memoriae Sacrum 
Nota Bene 
Post Meridiem 
Post Scriptum 
Ultimo 
Et Caetera 



A. Answer. Alexander 



Acct. 

Bart. 

Bp. 

Capt. 

Col. 

Cr. 

Dr. 



Account 

Baronet 

Bishop 

Captain 

Colonel 

Creditor 

Debtor, Doctor 



Do. or Ditto. The same 



L. C. J. Lord Chief Justice 

Knt. Knight 

K. G. Knight of the Garter 

K. B. Knight of the Bath 

K. C B. Knt. Commander of the Bath 

K. C. Knt. of the Crescent 

K. P. Knight of St. Patrick 

K. T. Knight of the Thistle 

MS. Manuscript 



* The Latin of these Abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but to 
show the etymology of the English ; or explain, for instance, how P. M. cornea 
to mean afternoon, &c. 

15 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 89. 



Viz.* 


Namely 


MSS. 


Manuscripts 


a. 


Question, Uueen 


N. S. 


New Stvle 


R.N. 


Royal Navy 


o. s. 


Old Style 


Esq. 


Esquire 


J. p. 


Justice of the Peace 



PARAGRAPHS. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numerous, 
should be separated into paragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the larger 
divisions of it should be put into distinct paragraphs. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
naturally point out the separations into paragraphs : and each of these, 
when of great length, will again require subdivisions at the most dis- 
tinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into several 
paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the connexion of 
the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division. 

§ 89. OF CAPITALS. 

Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both 
in writing and in printing ; but at present only the. follow- 
ing words begin with capital letters :- — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of in- 
terrogation, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and 
the one after it, are independent of each other. 

But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences are so connected, that the 
latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with 
a small letter; as. "How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people ! how 
are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow ! " 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, 
ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in 
capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, 
the Almighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

* Contracted from videUcit. 



§ 90. SYNTAX. 159 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; 
as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon ; as, always remember this ancient maxim : " Know 
thyself." 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, 
the first word must not begiu with a capital ; as, Solomon observes, that ' prida 
goes before destruction.' 

9. Common nouns when personified; as, " Come, gentle 
Spring" 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles 
of books ; as, " Euclid's Elements of Geometry ; " " Gold- 
smith's Deserted Village." 

Note. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

§ 90. RHETORICAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOURSE. 

The principal parts of a discourse are generally six in number, viz, 
the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the 
Refutation, and the Peroration. 

The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in which the 
writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject, and solicits the 
favor and attention of his audience or readers. 

The Narration is a brief recital of all the facts connected with the 
case, from beginning to end. 

The Proposition is the part in which is given the true state of the 
question, specifying the points maintained, and those in which the 
writer or speaker differs from his adversary. 

The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments that can 
be adduced in support of what has been attempted to be established. 
The stronger begin and end this part, and the weaker are reserved for 
the middle. 

The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker answers 
the arguments and objections of his opponent. 

In the Peroration or Conclusion, he sums up the principal argu- 
ments, and endeavors to excite the passions of his reader or hearer in 
his favor. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 91 

§ 91. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

All Composition, whether spoken or written, is of two kinds, eithe, 
Prose or Poetry. 

Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments 
are expressed in common and ordinary language. 

Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments 
are expressed by such a selection and arrangement of words as pleases 
the ear and captivates the fancy. 

Thousands write and speak in prose for one who does so in verse, 
yet it is generally allowed that poetic compositions in all countries have 
preceded those of prose. 

Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided into different 
classes, and arranged under various heads. 

I. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROSE COMPOSITION. 

The different kinds into which prose compositions may be divided, 
are, Narrative, Letters, Memoirs, History, Biography, Essays, Philo- 
sophy, Sermons, Novels, and Speeches or Orations. 

Narrative is a plain and simple statement of such facts and oc- 
currences as a person may have either seen or heard, and includes in 
it Voyages and Travels of all descriptions. 

Letters are those easy and familiar compositions which pass from 
one person to another, and may be appropriated to every description 
of subject, though generally relating to the common and ordinary oc- 
currences of life and business. 

Memoirs consist of loose and familiar records of individuals 
or nations, without that regularity of method which history and bio- 
graphy require. 

History is a regular account of the past transactions of some par 
ticular age or nation, and details chiefly plans of government, move- 
ments of armies, and events of great and general interest. 

Biography is a particular species of history, and consists of an ac- 
count of the birth, death, and most important occurrences in the life of 
some eminent individual. 

Essay means trial or attempt, and is a modest term assumed at 
the pleasure of the writer, as the title of almost any species of compo- 
sition, though it is generally employed to denote such writings as the 
Spectator, Rambler, &c. 



J 91. SYNTAX. 161 

Philosophy or Philosophical Compositions are those in which the 
principles of art and science are inculcated, and the various phenomena 
of the Natural a. id Moral world investigated. 

Sermons are illustrations of some doctrine of Scripture, or exhor- 
tations to the practice of some moral and religious duty, enjoined by 
Christianity. 

Novels are those compositions which give an account of characters 
and events that have in reality never existed, but have been invented 
or supposed by the author for the purpose either of affording pleasure, 
or inculcating some important lesson. 

Speeches and Orations are those addresses which are made 
either at the Bar or in Public Assemblies, for the purpose of persuad- 
ing the hearers of the truth of certain opinions, or leading to the adop- 
tion of certain modes of action. 

II. DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY 

The different kinds, into which poetry may be divided, are, the 
Epigram, the Epitaph, the Sonnet, Pastoral, Didactic, Satiric, Descrip- 
tive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic or Heroic, poetry. 

An Epigram is a short, witty poem, the" point or humour of which is 
brought out in the concluding lines. 

An Epitaph is an inscription on a tombstone, in commemoration 
of some departed person. 

The Sonnet, which is of Italian origin, means a little song, and 
consists generally of fourteen lines, constructed in a peculiar man 
ner. 

Pastoral poetry is that which relates to rural life; though it 
sometimes assumes the form of a simple song or ballad. 

Didactic poetry is that by which some art or duty is inculcated ; 
and, though forming a distinct class of itself, yet its characteristics ar8 
so general as to extend to almost every description of poetry. 

Satires are poems intended to ridicule vices and follies, and hold 
them up to contempt. They have been divided into two classes j the 
jocose or ludicrous, and the serious or declamatory. 

Descriptive poetry may be classed under two divisions ; that, 
by which is offered to our view a delineation of nature,, or of natural 

15* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6 91. 

scenery, and that, by which are described the manners, sentiments, 
and passions of men. 

Elegy was first employed in lamentation for the decease of great 
persons, or of those who were particularly dear to the writer ; but it 
was afterwards extended in its application, and employed to express 
the misery of disappointed love, and even at times made the vehicle of 
moral sentiment. 

Lyric poetry is such as may be sung or set to music, which both 
the term ode, and the epithet lyric, from lyre, a musical instrument, 
imply. There is the serious and sublime ode ; and the familiar and 
comic, which, in modern language, is denominated the song. 

By Dramatic poetry is generally meant a poem in blank verse, 
called a play, and fitted for representation on the stage. It is of two 
kinds, Tragic and Comic. 

An Epic poem is a historical representation or description of some 
great and important action, involving the interests of the whole, or of a 
large portion, of mankind. 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 



PRospy consists of two parts ; Elocution and 
Versificao n# 

\ § 92. ELOCUTION. 

Elocutx n is correct pronunciation, or the 
proper mang-ement of the voice in reading or 
speaking. 

The utility of E^ u ti n will be evident, when we consider that the 
finest composition && the most brilliant ideas may be materially in- 
jured, and, in some a ses, totally destroyed, by a bad and insipid 
delivery j while, on t^ other hand, noble sentiments, properly and 
gracefully delivered, prd; uce an astonishing effect on the mind of the 
hearer. 



In order to read i^d speak with grace and effect, 
attention must be pVid to the proper pitch of the 
voice, the accent "and quantity of the syllables, and 
to emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

1. THE VOICE. 

1. The voice must be neither too loud nor too low. An overstrained 
voice is inconvenient to the speaker, and disagreeable to the hearer ; 
while a voice that is too low, besides being inaudible, indicates either 
indolence or want of attention. Endeavour, therefore, so to preserve 
the command of your voice, not only in each sentence, but throughout 
the discourse, that you may elevate or lower it according to the num- 
ber of persons that you address, and the nature of the place in which 
you speak. 



IG4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 9f 

2. The voice must not be thick and indistinct. Never murr' 
or clip your words, by omitting to pronounce some of the f L 
words, and some syllables in the long words ; for it is very disr 32 " 
able to hear an individual hurrying on without any care eir 
be heard distinctly, or to give his words their full and proper 111 
Accustom yourself, both in conversation and in reading, § ive 
every sound which you utter its due proportion, so that ev/ wor( * 
and every syllable may be clearly and distinctly heard. ->bseive 
with what deliberation some read and converse, how fu a sound 
they give to every word j and let such persons be mod' * or y° ur 
imitation. 

3. The utterance must be neither too quick nor too slow " " en we 
speak too quick, the hearer finds a difficulty in keeping ice wlin our 
movements ; whilst, by a slow and heavy delivery, he b^ mes ' an § ulcl 
and careless. Endeavour, therefore, to convey to the h irer ™ e sense » 
weight, and propriety of every sentence you read, ir> " ee > * ull > a 
deliberate pronunciation. 

4. The voice must not be irregular or uneven, nor yA u ^ nor um J orm i 
but modulated according to the nature of the subject. Do not begin your 
periods either in too high or in too low a key : for his ma y lead to lts 
being unnaturally and improperly varied. Atte<* t0 tne nature and 
quantity of your points, and the length of yo** periods ; and keep 
your mind intent on the sense, subject, and sp'A of the author. 



2. ACCENT AND GtUyNTITY. 

Accent is the laying of a particular stress of the 
voice on a certain syllable in a word ; as, the syllable 
vir hi the word virtue. 

A proper accentuation is of importance, and it can be acquired only 
by attending to correct speakers, and frequently consulting a good 
Pronouncing Dictionary. Walker's Dictionary is considered the 
standard for pronunciation. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is that time which 
is required to pronounce it. 

A long syllable requires double the time of a 
short one in pronouncing it; thus, fine, tube 



) 92. prosody. 165 

should be pronounced as slowly again as pin and 
tub. 

3. By Emphasis is meant that stress of the voice 
which we lay on some particular word or words, 
in order to mark their superior importance in the 
sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea 
intended by the writer or speaker. 

A person who clearly comprehends what he says in private con- 
versation, never fails to place the emphasis on the right word ; when, 
therefore, he is about to read or repeat the words of others or his own, 
let him only consider where he would lay the emphasis, supposing 
those words proceeded from the immediate sentiment of his own mind 
in private discourse. 

There is one error, against which it is necessary particularly to 
caution the learner, namely, that of too great a multiplication of em- 
phatical words. It is only by a judicious use of them that we can 
give them any weight. If they recur too often ; if a reader or speaker 
appears desirous, by a multitude of strong emphases, to render every 
thing which he expresses particularly important, we soon learn to pay- 
little regard to them. To crowd every sentence with emphatical 
words, is like crowding all the pages of a book with Italic characters, 
which, as to the effect, is just the same as to use no such distinctions 
at all. 

4. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, 
in order to enable the reader or speaker to take 
breath ; and to give the hearer a distinct perception 
of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the 
whole discourse. 

Pauses are of two kinds ; first, emphatical pauses ; and next, such 
as serve to distinguish the sense. 

Emphatical pauses are used after something has been said which is 
of importance, and on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention. 
Sometimes they are made to introduce an emphatical sentence; but 
then the matter must be really important, otherwise the expectation 
is disappointed. These pauses, like emphases, ought not to be used 
too frequently. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92. 

With respect to pauses tohick serve to distinguish the sense, it is 
proper to observe, that the voice should be relieved at every stop ; 
slightly at a comma, longer at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, 
and completely at a period. An excellent method for preventing the 
habit of taking breath too frequently, is, to accustom yourself to read 
sentences of considerable length, and those which abound with long 
and difficult words. 

Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, must always be 
formed upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, sen- 
sible conversation, and not upon any stiff, artificial manner which is 
sometimes acquired. 

There are likewise two kinds of pauses peculiar to poetry ; one is, 
the final pause at the end of the line, and the other, the csesural pause 
at or near the middle of the line. 

In reading blank verse, the close of each line should be made sensi- 
ble to the ear, but without letting the voice fall, or elevating it; it 
should be marked only by such a slight suspension of sound, as may 
distinguish the passage from one line to another without injuring the 
sense. 

The cacsural pause divides the line into two parts. It is necessary 
in every line of eight, ten, or twelve syllables, and is generally placed 
at the end of the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable. 

5. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, 
the notes or variations of sound which we employ 
in speaking. 

The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different 
tones of the voice. Love, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice ; 
anger, by a strong, vehement, and elevated voice ; joy, by a quick, 
sweet, and clear voice ; sorrow, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice ; 
fear, by a dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice ; courage, by a full, 
bold, and loud voice ; and perplexity, by a grave, steady, and earnest 
voice. In exordiums the voice should be low, yet clear ; in narrations, 
distinct ; in reasoning, slow ; in persuasions, strong : it should 
thunder in anger, soften in sorrow, tremble in fear, and melt in 
love. 

In the antithesis, the contrary assertion must be pronounced louder 
than the other. In a climax, the voice should always rise with it. In 
dialogues, it should alter with the parts. 

The voice should be steadily and firmly supported throughout the 
sentence, and the concluding words ought to be modulated according 



§ 92. prosody. 167 

to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction 
and meaning of the sentence. Such sentences are so constructed, 
that the last words require a stronger emphasis than any of- the pre- 
ceding ; while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle 
sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last 
sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show 
that the sense is finished, will be proper. And in pathetic pieces it is 
necessary that there should be a still greater cadence of the voice. 

The tones of public speaking must be formed upon those of sensi- 
ble animated conversation. The best rule, therefore, is to follow Na- 
ture; consider how she teaches you to utter any sentiment or feeling 
of the heart. Imagine a subject of debate introduced into conversation, 
and yourself bearing a share in it Think after what manner, with 
what tones and inflections of voice, you would on such an occasion ex- 
press yourself, when you were most in earnest, and sought most to 
be listened to by those whom you addressed. Let these be the foun- 
dation of your manner of pronouncing in public, and you will take 
the surest method of rendering your delivery both agreeable and per 
suasive. 

The next subject which claims attention is gesture or action. 
The best rule that can be given with respect to this subject is, to at- 
tend to the looks and gestures in which earnestness, indignation, 
compassion, or any other emotion, discovers itself to most advantage 
in the common intercourse of men. A judicious speaker will endea- 
vor to make his motions and gestures exhibit that kind of expression 
which nature has dictated, for unless this be the case, no study can 
prevent their appearing stiff and ungraceful. The study of action con- 
sists chiefly in guarding against awkward and disagreeable motions, 
and learning to perform, in the most graceful manner, such as are 
natural. 

The first object in the study of Elocution is to habituate the scholar 
to speak with distinctness and deliberation ; for till this has been ac- 
quired, no improvement can be made in elegance of expression. "An 
excellent method of teaching a distinct enunciation in speaking is," 
says Dr. Knox, " the motion of an instructor's hand, resembling the 
beating of time in music, and directing the pauses of the learner, and 
the slower or quicker progress of his pronunciation. It is, likewise, 
very useful to insist, during this exercise, that every syllable, but espe- 
cially the last, shall strike the ear distinctly, but without dwelling upon 
it j otherwise the slow and distinct manner will degenerate into the 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 93. 

seavy and the sluggish. During this process, all monotony, and all 
iisagreeable tones are to be carefully corrected.' , 

When a distinct and deliberate utterance has been obtained, and all 
iisagreeable tones have been corrected, the student must endeavor to 
acquire an impressive and graceful utterance, with such a portion of 
action as good sense and observation may suggest. 

§ 93. VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain 
number of syllables, according to particular rules. 

A Foot is a part of a verse, and consists of two or three 
syllables. 

A certain number of syllables are said to be named Feet, because by their aid 
the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. 

A Verse is a certain number of connected feet forming 
one line. 

A Hemistich is half a verse. 

A Couplet or Distich- consists of two verses; a Triplet 
of three. 

The term hyp ere dialectic, hypermeter, or redundant, is applied to a 
verse when it exceeds the regular number of syllables. 

A Stanza or Stave is a combination of several verses, 
varying in number according to the poet's fancy, and con- 
stituting a regular division of a poem, or song. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syllables 
j>f different lines, as in the following verses : — 

On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 

In Blank Verse the final syllables do not rhyme. 

A Caesura is a cessation of the voice, and occurs im- 
mediately after the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable of a 
verse ; as, 

The dumb shall sing || the lame his crutch forego, 
And leap exulting || like the bounding roe. 



§ 93. prosody. 169 

Metre is the arrangement of a certain number of poe- 
tical feet in a verse, according to the accent. 

To scan a verse is to divide it into its component feet. 

Alliteration consists in repeating the same letter or letters, at certain 
intervals j as, 

Better to hunt in fields for health unbought, 
Than fee the doctor for a nauseous draught. 

The Strophe was that part of the ancient hymn which was sung by 
the Greek chorus, in turning from east to west, while dancing round 
their altars. 

The Antistrophe was that part of the sacred hymn of the Greeks 
which was sung in returning from west to east, after they had danced 
round the altars. 

The Epode is the third or last part of an ode ; the ancient ode was 
divided into strophe, antistrophe, and epode. The epode was sung 
by the priest standing before the altar, after all the turns and returns 
of the strophe and antistrophe. The word epode signifies the end 
of the song. 

The Prologue, in dramatic poetry, is an explanatory exordium, ad- 
dressed to the audience before the drama begins - 

The Epilogue, in the drama, is an address to the audience when the 
play is completed, and is generally written in poetry. 

All feet used in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; 
four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : — 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee — — A Dactyl — — ^ 

An Iambus — — An Amphibrach -> 

A Spondee An Anapaest — — — 

A Pyrrhic — — A Tribrach ~ ~ — 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented,* and the last 
unaccented ; as, "Noble, happy." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, " Adore, defend." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented , 
as, " Vain man." 

* In versification, every accented syllable is long, every unaccented syllable 
is snort 

16 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 93 

A. Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; 
as, " E'en in | the height." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two 
latter unaccented ; as, " Virtuous. " 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unac- 
cented, and the middle one accented ; as, " CSntent- 
ment," 

An Anapast has the first two syllables unaccented f 
and the last accented ; as, " intercede." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, " Nu- 
merable." 

The Iambus, Trochee, and Anapaest, may be denominated princi- 
pal feet, as pieces of poetry are chiefly, and may be wholly, formed of 
them. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief 
use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 
1. IAMBIC VERSES. 

Iambic verses have every second, fourth, and other even syllables 
accented, and are of various lengths. 

1. The shortest form of Iambic verse, consists of one Iambus with 
an hypermeter or additional syllable ; as, 

Consent | ing, 

Repent | ing. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it is sometimes introduced 
into stanzas. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be continued 
through any numDer of lines. It consists of two Iambuses ; as, 

With Thee j we rise. 
With Thee | we reign 
And em J pires gain, 
Beyond [ the skies. 
This form sometimes assumes an hypermeter syllable ; as 
Upon | a moun | tain 
Beside | a f oun | tain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses, and is continued only 
for a few lines ; as, 

In pla | ces far | or near, 
Or fa I m5us or I obscure, 






§ 93. PROSODY. 171 

Where whole | some is | the air, 
Or where | the most | impure. 
This form sometimes admits an additional short syllable ; as 
Our hearts | no long | er Ian | guish. 

4. The fourth form may extend through a considerable numbei of 
verses; it consists of four Iambuses; as, 

How sleep | the brave | who sink j tS rest 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 
When spring, with dewy ringers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallow'd mould, 
But there shall dress a sweeter sod, 
Than fancy's feet have ever trod. 

5. The fifth species, or Hemic measure, consists of five Iambuses | 
as, 

Ye gilt | t'rlng towns, ] with wealth | and splend | our 

crown' d ; 
Ye fields, where summer spreads profusion round ; 
Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale ; 
Ye bending swains, that dress the flow'ry vale ; 
For me your tributary stores combine ; 
Creation's heir, the world, the world is mine ! 
This measure may be used either with, or without rhyme, and fre- 
quently admits an additional syllable ; as, 

Worth makes | the man, | the want | of it | thefel j low, 
The rest is nought but leather or prunelZo. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the Alexandrine 
measure ; it consists of six Iambuses. 

Forthou | art but | ofdust; | be hum | bleand | be wise. 

The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme, and par- 
ticularly into stanzas after the manner of Spencer ; and when used 
sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable variety. 

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 93. 

Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 
And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely been ; 
To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 
With the wild flock that never needs a fold ; 
Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; 
This is not solitude ; 'tis but to hold 

Converse | with Na \ ture^s charms, \ and vieio ' her stores \ un- 
rolVd. 
7. The seventh and last form of Iambic verse consists of seven 
Iambuses. 
The Lord | descend ( edfrom j above, | andbow'd | the heav j ens 
high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken into two , 
the first containing four feet, and the second three ; as, 
Thou didst, | O migh | ty God! | exist | 

Ere time | began j its race ; [ 
Before the ample elements 

Fill'd up the void of space. 

2. TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse consists of one Trochee, with an ad* 
ditional syllable ; as, 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to [ peace. 

2. The next form contains two Trochees ; as, 

Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts sur | prising, 
Pleasures | courting, 
Charms trans | porting. 
Sometimes this form admits an additional syllable ; as, 
In the | days of | old, 
Stories j plainly | told, 

3. The third species contains three Trochees ; as, 

When our | hearts are | mourning. 
This form frequently has an additional syllable ; as, 

Vital | spark of | heav'nly \ flame, 
Quit, oh | quit, this J mortal j frame ! 



§ 93. prosody. 173 

Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying, 
Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying : 
Cease fond nature, cease thy strife, 
And let me languish into life. 

4. The fourth form consists of four Trochees ; as, 

Round us | roars the j tempest | louder. | 
This form seldom assumes an additional syllable. 

5. The fifth species is not very common ; it is composed of five 
Trochees ; as, 

All that | walk Sn [ foot 5r | ride in | chari6ts, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. The sixth and last form consists of six Trochees ; as, 

On a | mountain, | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary | wil- 
low, j 

Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

3. DACTYLIC VERSE. 
Dactylic verse is very rarely used. 

3. ANAP^STIC VERSE. 

1. The first form of our Anapaestic verse consists of two Anapaests; 
as, 

But his cou | rage 'gan fail, 

For no arts could avail. 
Sometimes this form assumes an additional short syllable ; as, 
Then his cou j rage, gan fail | him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2. The second species, much used both in solemn and cheerful sub- 
jects, consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, | spread ySur branch | es apace ; 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase, 
I would vanish from every eye. 

16* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 93. 

3. The third consists of four Anapaests; as, 
May I go | vern my pass | ions with ab | sSlute sway - 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This form sometimes contains an additional syllable ; as, 

On the warm | cheek of youth, | smiles and ro j ses . 
are blend | Tng. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, in 
their simple forms. They are capable of numerous variations, by 
the intermixture of those feet with one another, and by the ad- 
mission of the secondary feet, as will be seen by the following ex» 
amples. 

THE PYRRHIC MIXED WITH THE IAMBIC. 

And t5 | the dead j my will | ing soul | shall go. 

THE SPONDEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

F5rbear | great man, j in arms [ renown'd, | forbear* . 

THE TROCHEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

Tyrant j and slave, J those names | of hate [ and fear 

THE FOLLOWING CONSISTS OF AN IAMBIC AND TWO ANAPAESTS* 

My sor j rows I then | might assuage 
In the ways | of rell [ gion and truth, 

Might learn j from the \yjs J dom of age, 
And be cheer'd j by the sal j lies of youth. 

5. OF BLANK VERSE. 

Our blank verse may be reckoned a noble, bold, and disencum- 
bered species of versification, and in several cases it possesses many 
advantages over rhyme. It allows the lines to run into one another 
with perfect freedom ; hence it is adapted to subjects of dignity and 
force, which demand more free and manly numbers than can be ob- 
tained in rhyme. Blank verse is written in the heroic measure, con- 
sisting often syllables. The principal poets in this species of compo- 
sition are Milton, Thomson, Armstrong, Akenside, Cowper, and 
Poilok. 



§ 94. prosody. 175 

§ 94. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

A Figure of Speech is a mode of speaking, in which a word or 
sentence is to be understood in a sense different from its most common 
and literal meaning. 

THE PRINCIPAL FIGURES OF SPEECH ARE, 

Personification, Synecdoche, 

Simile, Antithesis, 

Metaphor, Climax, 

Allegory, Exclamation, 

Hyperbole, Interrogation, 

Irony, Paralepsis, 

Metonymy, Apostrophe. 

Prosopopoeia) or Personification, is that figure of speech by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, The sea saio it 
and fled. 

A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another j 
as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers ofioater. 

A Metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as. &c.) of compa- 
rison ; as, He shall be a tree planted by, fyc. 

An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in 
sense as to form a kind of parable or fable ; thus, The people of Is- 
rael are represented under the image of a vine ; Thou hast brought a 
vine out of Egypt, fyc. Ps. Ixxx. 8 to ,17. 

An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, 
better or worse, than they really are ; as, "When David says of Saul 
and Jonathan, They to ere swifter than eagles, they were stronger than 
lions. 

Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we 
say : as, When Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, Cry aloud, for 
he is a god, fyc. 

A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, 
or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, He reads Milton; 
we mean Milton's works. Grey hairs should be respected, L e. old 
age. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a 
part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c. as, The waves for the 
sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any gi*eat number. 
This figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 95. 

Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary ob- 
jects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage; 
thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of 
the righteous, when he says, The toicked flee when no man pursueth, 
but the righteous are bold as a lion. 

* Climax is the heightening of all the circumstances of an object or 
action, which we wish to place in a strong light ; as, who shall sepa- 
rate as from the love of Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or per- 
secution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay, fyc. See 
also, Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion 
of the mind ; as, Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the 
knowledge of God ! 

Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our 
mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions ; thus, Hath 
the Lord said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall 
he not make it good ? 

Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends to 
conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, Hora- 
tius was once a very promising young gentleman, but in process of 
time he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness 
and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate and ruined his con- 
stitution. 

Apostrophe, is a turning ofF from the subject to address some other 
person or thing ; as, Death is swallowed up in victory : death, where 
is thy sting ? 

§ 95. POETIC LICENSE. 

I. The first species of poetic license consists in an arrangement of 
words different from what is allowable in prose. 

1. The adjective is often placed after its noun, where in common 
prose it would precede it ; as, 

Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue. 

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

2. The nominative sometimes follows, and the objective precedes, 
their respective verbs ; as, 

* Climax, Amplification, Enumeration or Gradation. 



§ 95. prosody. 177 

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 
A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 
His listless length at noontide would he stretch. 
Snatched in short eddies, plays the withered leaf, 

3. The infinitive mood often precedes the word on which it depends ; 
as, 

When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed, 
To thee he gave the heavenly birth, 
And bade thee form her infant mind. 

4. The verb comes frequently between its nominatives ; as 

Then too, they say, through all the burdened air, 
Long groans are heard, shrill sounds, and distant sighs. 

His praise, ye brooks, attune, ye trembling rills. 

5. Prepositions are sometimes placed after the words which they 
govern; as, 

"Where echo walks steep hills among, 

II. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are often used which 
would be inadmissible in prose ; as, 

A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

By fountain clear, or spangled star-light sheen. 

Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 

When and where likes me best, I can command ? 

Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey. 

The whiles, the vaulted shrine around, 
Seraphic wires were heard to sound. 

On the first friendly bank he throws him down. 

I'll seek the solitude he sought, 
And stretch me where he lay. 

Not Hector's self should want an equal foe. 

III. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than 
in prose; as, 

Suffice, to-night, these orders to obcv. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 95 

Time is our tedious song should here have ending. 

For is there ought in sleep can charm the wise ? 

'Tis fancy in her fiery car, 
Transports me to the thickest war. 

Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys. 

Bliss is the same in subject as a king, 
In who obtain defence, or who defend. 

jlV. A syllable in poetry is often either omitted or added as befffc 
suits tfie measure ; as, 

Wail, for bewail: wilder, for bewilder; plaint, for complaint; 
amaze, for amazement ; eve or even, for evening ; helm, for helmet ; 
morn, for morning ; lone, for lonely ; dread, for dreadful ; list, for 
listen ; ope, for open ; lure, for allure ; e'er, for ever ; ne'er, for 
never, &c. 

The language of poetry may be said to be a dialect appropriated 
almost solely to this species of composition. Not only the nature of 
the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrangement 
of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it 
widely from common prose. 

V. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly connected with nouns 
which they do not strictly qualify ; as, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way* 

The tenants of the warbling shade. 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 

VI. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. See 
Crombie Rule 14. 

1 . A noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same 
verb ; as, 

It ceased, the melancholy sound. 

My banks they are furnished with bees. 

2. The imperfect tense and the perfect participle are often substituted 
for each other, especially in rhyme ; as, 

Though parting from that mother he did shun, 
Before his weary pilgrimage begun. 



§ 95. prosody, 179 

3. An adverb is often admitted bet ween the verb and to, the sign of 
the infinitive ; as, 

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; 
'To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes. 

VII. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor 
instead of either and neither; as, 



A.nd first 



Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea. 
Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest 

VIII. Intrans. verbs are often made trans, and adjectives used like 
abstract nouns ; as, 

The lightnings flash a larger curve. 

Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived 
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart 

Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 
By chance or search, was offered to his view, 
He scanned with curious eye. 

IX. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in poetry 
though inadmissible in prose ; as, 

He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme. 

Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold. 

There are, who deaf to mad ambition's call 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame. 

Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed. 

Never since created man 

Met such imbodied force. 

X. Contractions are often made in poetry, which are not allowable 
in prose; and letters and syllables. which are silent in prose are often 
sounded in poetry ; as, 

And ne'er again the boy his bosom sought 

They praised are alone, and starve right merrily. 

Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to prose 
writers ; and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, they 
enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by increasing the 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96. 

boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, between it 
and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry, the 
difficulty attendant upon this species of composition would probably 
be so great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of 
writing verse. 

§ 96. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 

Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of words, 
and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be observed, 
are Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not 
strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers 
and speakers. 

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, Fraickeur ; 
politesse ; he repents him of his folly. 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words; as, Albeit, aforetime, 
inspectator, judgmatical. 

EXERCISES. 

The person is without encumberment. In the country, we associate 
with none but the bettermost sort of people. Snails exclude their 
horns, and therewith explorate their way. Methinks till now I never 
heard a sound more dreary. We walked adown the river side. Per- 
ad venture he may call to-morrow. He is a very impopular speaker. 
I like his great candidness of temper. 

propriety. 
Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to 
express our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions ; as, to get into a scrape. 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical ; as, this 
morn ; the celestial orbs. 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly 
understand them. 

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses ; 
as, the king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed 
it to the secretary, who made it known to the public; His own rea- 
son might have suggested better reasons. 

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete the 
sense; thus, instead of this action increased his former services; say, 
this action increased the merit of his former services. 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, his memory shall 
be lost on the earth. 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, I have an 
opaque idea of what you mean. 

exercises. 
The composure of this psalm is attributed to David. They will 
meet at eve. Regard should be paid to the pupils' intended avoca* 



§ 96. HINTS FOR WRITING. 181 

tions. The observation of the Sabbath is incumbent upon every 
Christian. • The negligence of this leaves us exposed to uncommon 
levity. He put an end to his own existence. I propose to give a 
general view of the subject. I wonder if he will come. He feels 
none of the sorrows that usually arrive at man. War should be so 
managed as to remember that its only end is peace. When Johnson 
was ill, he composed a prayer to deprecate God's mercy. There are 
both more and more important truths. He lives in a lone cottage. 
The Latin tongue in its purity was never in this island. Imprudent 
associations disqualify us for the instruction or reproof of others. 

PRECISION. 

Precision rejects superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology ; as, his faithfulness and fidelity were un- 
equalled. 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous ; 
thus, instead of, though his actions and intentions were good, he lost 
his character ; say, he lost his reputation, 

EXERCISES. 

I took some wine and some water, and mixed them both together. 
He wandered throughout the whole city. They abhorred and de- 
tested being in debt. This man on all occasions, treated those around 
him with great haughtiness and disdain. Hi3 wealth and riches be- 
ing collected and accumulated in meanness, were squandered in riot 
and extravagance. Such conduct showed a marked and obvious in- 
tention to deceive and abuse us. He had proceeded but a short way 
on his journey, when he returned home again. 

II. With respect to Sentences, Clearness, Unity, Strength, and a 
proper application of the Figures of Speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be 
placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such 
a situation as the sense requires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for 
which they stand. 

EXERCISES. 

By the articles subsisting between us, on the day marriage, you 
agreed to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds. Not to exas- 
perate him, I only spoke a very few words. It has not a word, says 
Pope, but what the author religiously thinks in it. It is true what he 
says, but it is not applicable to the point. Had he died before, would 
not then this art have been wholly unknown. Most nations, not even 
excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. He will soon weary the 
company, who is himself wearied. 

UNITY. 

Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or a series 
of clauses 

17 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences, such clauses as have no imme- 
diate connexion. 

2< The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most 
prominent, and the leading nominative should, if possible, be the sub- 
ject of every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parenthesis, except when a lively re- 
mark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of 
what goes before. 

EXERCISES. 

Desires oi pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of disor- 
derly passions is forwarded. The notions of Lord Sunderland were 
always good, but he was a man of great expense. A short time after 
this injury, he came to himself; and the next day they put him on 
board a ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth, and thence to the 
island of iEgina. He who performs every employment in its due 
place and season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit ; and 
thus his days become multiplied ; and much of life is enjoyed in little 
space. Never delay till to-morrow, (tor to-morrow is not yours ; and 
though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload it with a 
burden not its own,) what reason and conscience tell you ought to be 
performed to-day. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength gives to every word and every member its due impor- 
tance. 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem- 
bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in Italics should 
be omitted; being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained sub- 
mission. 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they 
will make the strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger ; and, when the 
sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding 
one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, 
where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some re- 
semblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any 
inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 

EXERCISES. 

It is six months ago, since I paid a visit to my relations. Sus- 
pend your censure so long, till your judgment be wisely formed. 
The reason why he spoke as he did, he never explained. If I mistake 
not, I think he has made great improvement since I last saw him. 
Those two gentlemen appear both to be foreigners. I fear this is the 
last time that we shall ever meet How many are there, by whom 
these tidings of good news were never heard. This measure may af- 
ford some'profit, and furnish some amusement Thought and lan- 
guage act and re-act mutually upon each other. Sinful pleasures 
blast the opening prospects of human felicity, and degrade human 



§ 07. HINTS FOR WRITING. 183 

honor. Generosity is a splendid virtue, which many persons aievery 
fond of! As no one is without his failings, so few want good qualities. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except 
when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, 
not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended toge- 
ther. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be pre- 
served throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 

EXERCISES. 

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. I 
intend to make use of these words in the thread of my speculations. 
Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the thickest gloom. 
Let us keep our mouths with a bridle, and steer our vessel so as to 
avoid the rocks and shoals which meet us at every step. We are all 
embarked on a troubled sea, and every step of our journey brings us 
into new perils. Let us keep alive the flame of devotion m the soul, 
and not suffer our minds to sink into utter indifference about spiritual 
matters. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

When favors of every kind are conferred speedily, they are doubled. 
I wish to cultivate your acquaintance. In no situation did he ever, at 
any time, make so poor an appearance. Many things occur which 
are known only to the eye of him, to whom all things lie open and ex- 
posed. There can be no manner of doubt but that his services will 
be rewarded. John's temper quite disqualified him for instruction. 
The business, in which he was then engaged, engrossed the whole of 
his time and attention. He disposed of his house, together with all 
his furniture, at a very trifling sum. He was a boy of but twelve 
years old, when I saw him at his father's. No employment but a 
bookseller would satisfy him. This matter I had a great mind to re- 
ply to. He must pay attention both to what goes before, and imme- 
diately follows after. To-day we are here ; to-morrow we are 
gone. I went home full of a great many serious reflections. Shall 
they treat as visionary, objects which they never have made them- 
selves acquainted with. I perceived that it had been scoured with 
half an eye. 

§ 97. COMPOSITION. 

To be able to compose with ease and accuracy is one of the first of 
human attainments. It is the fruit of careful study and long practice, 
requiring an intimate acquaintance with language, a knowledge of its 
grammatical structure, as well as an intimacy with the works of the 
most distinguished authors, who have made it the vehicle for commu- 
nicating their thoughts. 



1B4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 97 

As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, the 
pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exer- 
cised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and mem- 
bers in sentences, so as to try in how many different ways the same 
thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a con- 
siderable command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source of 
considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely 
new turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant 
or even perspicuous. 

There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a 
thought may be varied. 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active 
verb ; as, The sun dissolves the snow; The snow is dissolved by the 
sun. 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the 
order in which the words stand in the sentence ; as, Competence 
may be acquired by industry ; By industry competence may be ac- 
quired. 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an 
affirmative, of an entirely contrary character ; as, Virtue promote* 
happiness ; Virtue does not promote misery. 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words employed to 
express any sentiment ; as, Diligence and application are the best 
means of improvement; Nothing promotes improvement like diligence 
and application. 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be 
done with safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others 
in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is 
noble ; silently to suffer for it is heroic. Provided he be himself in 
comfortable circumstances, the selfish man has no concern about the 
circumstances of others. The man who can make light of the suffer- 
ings of others, is himself entitled to no compassion. Sloth is one of 
man's deadliest enemies. He who made light spring from primeva. 
darkness, will, at last, make order rise from the seeming confusion of 
the world. 

EXAMPLE OP TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state 
evidently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praise- worthy than his sister's. It is better 
to be moved by false glory, than not to be moved at all. I shall at- 
tend the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves 
in modesty, as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim 
to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness 
and affability. There is no such obstacle to the attainment of ex- 



§ 97. COMPOSITION. 185 

cellence, as the power of producing, with facility, what is tolerably 
good. Industry is not only the instrument of improvement, but the 
foundation of pleasure. A wolf let into the sheep-fold, will devour tho 
sheep. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praise- worthy than his sister's. His sister's 
conduct was more praise-worthy than his. His sister's mode of act- 
ing was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less en- 
titled to praise than that of his sister, &c. 

Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for compo- 
sition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list of 
words with directions to form from them such sentences as shall con- 
tain these words. 

EXER.CISES. 

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or 
more of the following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, 
elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, 
social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, 
temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, &.c. 

LETTERS. 

One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition, 
is letter- writing. This species of composition may be practised either 
by way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same 
studies, or it may consist of letters written to imaginary correspon- 
dents. The following are a few topics adapted to composition of this 
latter kind : 

Letter 1st. — Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object 
of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how 
you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an ac- 
count of some of the alterations which have been lately made, or are 
now making in your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing your 
desire either to see him or hear from him soon. 

Letter 2d. — Write to a companion an account of a long walk which 
you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in company. 
Mention what particular things struck you by the way; and enumer- 
ate all the incidents that occurred of any moment. 

Letter 3d — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a 
present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use 
you intend to make of them ; and inform him to what particular books 
you are most partial. Conclude by giving some account of those you 
have been lately reading, and how you like them. 

Letter 4th. — Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. De- 
scribe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and 
your native country. Express your regret at losing him ; but state 
your hope that you will not forget each other when seas roll between 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 97. 

you. Request him to write to you frequently ; and advise him to be 
careful about his health, and of the society he keeps. 

Letter 5th. — Write to a friend at a distance ; and give him an ac- 
count of a sail which you lately had in a steam-boat. Mention what 
places you visited ; and state the objects that most delighted you. 
Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather you had, 
and what were your feelings upon returning home. 

Letter Qth. — Write to a friend an account of the church you were at 
last Sabbath. Tell who preached ; mention the psalms or hymns that 
were sung ; and the portions of Scripture that were read. State the 
texts from which the minister preached ; and give your opinion of the 
different sermons. 

These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon which 
the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be re- 
quired to write. The prudent and skilful teacher will be enabled to 
multiply and vary them at pleasure and to any extent. 

Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in composition, 
consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till such time as 
they are acquainted with the facts, and then directing them to ex- 
press these in their own words. A still further and perhaps even a 
simpler method, is, to take advantage of a young person's having 
given some account of what he has either seen, heard, or read, and de- 
sire him to commit to writing what he has stated orally. 

THEMES. 

The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. 
The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the ca- 
pacity of the person who is desired to compose, or, if it is, the whole 
benefit resulting from the exercise will be nullified. 

A theme is a regular set subject upon which a person is required to 
write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such a subject. 
Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from natural 
history, or natural philosophy. At all events they should not, in the 
first instance, be drawn from subjects of an abstruse and abstract 
character. 

The following may serve as specimens in this department : — 

Theme 1st— The horse. — 1. Describe what sort of animal the 
horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the various 
ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State 
what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. Mention the 
treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such a 
creature. 

Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep, and upon poultry ; 
and follow the same plan as that which you followed in writing upon 
the horse. 

Theme 2d. — The sun. — 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2. 
Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 3. 
Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we derive 



6 97. composition. 187 

from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the sun were ex- 
tinguished j and what our feelings ought to be toward the Supreme 
Being for such an object. 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and water ; and 
in all follow the same plan. 

Theme 3d. — Day and night. — 1. Tell what you mean by day and 
night. 2. State whether they are always alike long ; and what is the 
advantage arising from their lengths being different at different sea- 
sons. 3. Mention the different purposes for which they are adapted. 
4. Say of what the continued succession of day and night is fitted to 
remind us, and how this should lead us to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, ri- 
vers, and the tides of the sea ; and follow a similar plan in the whole. 

Theme 4th. — On Composition.— 1. Explain what you mean by this 
term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by showing 
how much it contributes to add to the value of one's knowledge. 
3. Mentioi >vhat is necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State 
the means by which skill in this art is to be obtained. 

Theme 5th. — On Company. — 1. Explain what you mean by compa- 
ny. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society. 3. State the 
danger of keeping either too much company, or of keeping bad com- 
pany. 4. Point out the advantages of good company. 

Write themes upon Conversation, Study, Improvement of Time, 
Choice of Books, Memory, the different Organs of Sense, &c. ; and 
in all follow the same method as you did in writing on Company. 

Theme 6th. — Narratives. — Describe the place or scene of the actions 
related— the persons concerned in— the time — posture of affairs- 
state of mind, motives, ends &c. of the actors — results. 

Write themes upon The discovery of America. The French War. 
The Revolutionary War. The Battle of Bunker's Hill. The French 
Revolution. 

Theme 7th. — Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or profane 
history, — The place— the origin — the circumstances — results— moral 
influence, &c. 

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a composition 
on The Creation— Death of Abel— The Deluge— The World after 
the Flood— The Tower of Babel— The Israelites in Egypt— Their 
deliverance from it— The giving of the law from Sinai— The Advent 
of the Messiah— his death— resurrection— Destruction of Jerusalem, 
he— The Seige of Troy— Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire— The 
Crusades— The burning of Moscow— The battle of Waterloo— The 
ieath of Bonaparte, &c. 

Theme 8th. — Give an account, of some of the most distinguished 
characters in different ages of the World— Warriors, Statesmen, Ar- 
tists, Philosophers, Poets, Orators, Divines, Philanthropists ;— me**- 
tioning what is known respecting their country, parentage, education 
character, principles, exploits, influence on society, for good or evil 
death* 



188 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 97 



The following list of themes is selected from Parker's Exercises in 
Composition. 

1. On Attention, 26. On Fortune, 51. On Ocean, 

27. " Fear, 

28. " Forgiveness, 

29. " Government, 
Grammar, 



" Adversity, 

" Ardor of mind, 

" Art, 



Attachment, local, 30. 



Anger, 31. 

Air, 32. 

8. " Benevolence, 33. 

9. " Beauty, 34. 

10. " Biography, 35. 

11. " Bad Scholar, 38. 

12. " Charity, 37. 

13. " Clemency, 38. 

14. " Compassion, 39. 

15. " Conscience, 40. 

16. " Constancy, 41. 

17. " Carelessness, 42. 

18. " Curiosity, 43. 

19. " Cheerfulaess, 44. 

20. " Contentment, 45. 

21. " Diligence, 46. 

22. " Duplicity, 47. 

23. " Early Rising, 48. 

24. " Envy, 49. 

25. " Friendship, 50. 

76. Knowledge is Power, 

77. Progress of Error, 

78. Progress of Truth, 

79. Government of the Tongue,. 

80. Government of the Temper, 



52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 

Greatness, true, 56. 



Genius, 

Habit, 

Honour, 

Happiness, 

Humility, 

Hypocrisy, 

History, 

Hope, 

Indolence, 

Industry, 

Ingratitude, 

Justice, 

Learning, 

Love of Fame, 

Music, 

Moon, 

Novelty, 

Night, 

Order, 



57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 



Pride, 

Party Spirit, 

Poverty, 

Principle, 

Perseverance, 

Patriotism, 

Politeness, 

Providence, 

Punctuality, 

Poetry, 

Piety, 

Religion, 

Reading, 

Sincerity, 

Summer, 

Spring, 

Sun, 

Svstem, 

Truth, 

Time, 

Talent, 

Vanity, 

Virtue, 

Wealth, 



91. Public Opinion, 

92. Diligence ensures Success, 

93. Idleness destroys Character, 

94. Contrivance proves Design, 

95. Avoid Extremes, 



81. Government of the Affections, 96. Visit to an Almshouse, 

97. ~ 



Pleasures of Memory, 

98, Example better than Precept, 

99. Misery is wed to Guilt, 

100. Value of Time, 

101. Virtue, the way to Happiness, 

102. No one lives for Himself, 

103. Thou God seest me, 

104. Trust not Appearances, 

105. Whatever is, is Right, 



82. Local Attachments, 

83. The Power of Association, 

84. The Immortality of the Soul, 

85. The Uses of Knowledge, 

86. Power of Conscience, 

87. The Power of Habit, 

88. Life is Short, 

89. Miseries of Idleness, 

90. Never too old to learn, 

106. "An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

107. Every man the architect of his own fortune. 

108. Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain." 

109. " A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

110. How blessings brighten, as they takelheir flight. 

111. Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass 

— of the telescope — the steam engine — the art of print- 
ing — of gunpowder. 

112. History of a needle — a cent — a Bible — a beaver hat. 

113. Description of a voyage to England — coast of Africa — Constanti- 

nople — South America — East Indies — China. 



APPENDIX. 



I. GRAMMAR. 

The object of Grammar, in a general sense, is to investigate 
the principles of language, and from a careful analysis of these, 
to lay down a system of rules and principles, by observing which, 
we may be enabled to express our thoughts in a particular lan- 
guage in a correct and proper manner. Such a collection of rules 
and principles applicable to the English language, with directions 
for their use in the most simple, brief, and convenient manner, 
has been attempted in the preceding pages. 

When we speak of Grammar as a system of rules, it is not to be 
understood that the rules are first established, and the language 
afterwards modelled in conformity to these. The very reverse is 
the fact; language is antecedent to grammar. "No grammarian 
can of his own authority alter the phraseology of any expression, 
or assign to a word a signification different from that which has 
been allotted to it by established usage. He must take the lan- 
guage as it is, not as he would wish it to be. He may, indeed, 
recommend this or that mode of expression, as more agreeable to 
analogy, but it must remain with the public whether or not his 
advice be adopted. From the decision of general, reputable, and 
established usage, there lies no appeal. His business is to observe 
the agreement or disagreement of words, the similarity or dis- 
similarity between different forms of expression; to reduce those 
that are similar, under the same class, and by a careful induction 
of particulars, establish general propositions. Nor is it abso- 
lutely necessary that he should know by what means this or that 
phraseology came into use, or why this or that word forms an ex- 
ception to a general rule-, it is sufficient for his purpose if he does 
know that it is an exception, and knowing it, points it out to 
others." 

" By arranging the various rules and principles of a language 
into a systematic form, permanency is given to what would other- 
wise be subject to fluctuation or involved in obscurity; the rela- 
tive coimexion and importance of the rules, become clearly as- 
certained, and the whole is rendered more easy of being acquired 
and retained, and applied with facility and correctness." 

(( Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, 
the grammatical study of our own language, formed no part of Vqp 
ordinary method of instruction, and consequently the writings of 
the best authors were frequently inaccurate. Subsequent to that 
period, however, attention has been paid to this important sub 



190 APPENDIX.— GRAMMAR. 1 

ject, and the change that has taken place both in our written and 
oral language, has evidenced the decided advantages resulting from 
such a plan. 

" The Grammar which has attained the greatest celebrity for 
general use, is that by Mr. Murray. In this work, he has embo- 
died the principles and rules which were deduced by the most cele- 
brated grammarians that preceded him, and by arranging the whole 
in a better order, has rendered it decidedly superior to every work 
of the kind which existed before its appearance." — Hiley's Preface. 

Since that time, many works have been published of various de- 
grees of merit, most of which have had for their object, not so 
much to investigate more thoroughly theprinciples of language, as 
to simplify and elucidate principles already investigated. The 
Etymology and Syntax of Dr. Crombie, lately published, though 
not intended for the use of schools, is a most valuable addition to 
the stock of original works on this subject. " The industry of re- 
search, and acuteness of discrimination, which he has evinced in 
the collection and comparison of different fbrms of speech, have 
thrown great light upon many difficulties, and his conclusions must 
in general serve as land marks to the future traveller." Some 
works of an eccentric character have also at times appeared, whose 
authors, smitten with a passion for novelty or singularity, have 
manifested much more capacity for pulling down, than building 
up, — for finding fault with that which is good already, than for 
producing something better in its place. Still the labors of even 
these, are not without their use. Like the violence of the tempest 
which shakes the sturdy oak, and causes it to strike its roots deeper 
and firmer in the parent soil, they only more firmly establish that 
which cannot be overthrown. 

The principles of language, which grammar as a science inves- 
tigates, are general and permanent. They belong to all langua- 
ges, and remain the same however they may be classed, or in 
whatever terms they may be expressed. Hence it is, that the 
grammars of all languages are substantially the same, and differ 
only in minor details, as idiom and usage require. This is as it 
should be. No good reason can be given for making a grammar 
of the English language, for example, toto ccdo, different from the 
grammars of other languages, ancient or modern. And yet it has 
been, and still is, the practice of some to declaim against the ex- 
isting systems of English Grammar, because, as they say, they are 
conformed to the grammars of the dead languages, or to those of 
foreign nations. Though such efforts may prevail for a season and 
with a few, more mature reflection usually dissipates the delusion. 
It is well known that novices in every science, are constantly mak- 
ing discoveries, and these appear to them for a time so impor- 
tant and wonderful, that they sometimes think they cannot fail to 
astonish the world, revolutionize the science, and immortalize 
themselves. It happens too, that such discoveries are usually in 
proportion to the want of discrimination and intelligence of those 



IL APPENDIX. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 191 

who make them. A more extended acquaintance with facts and 
principles, will often prove, even to themselves, that their great 
discoveries are only the crude and exploded fancies of other men 
and other days, long since abandoned as untenable and worthless. 
Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar 
also, and such, too, is often their origin and their end. 

The system of English grammar as we now have it in the best 
works, or in what some are pleased to call the " Old grammars," 
rests on a more solid foundation. Men of sound, discriminating, 
and philosophical minds — men prepared for the work by long stu- 
dy, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored 
for ages to improve and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in as-, 
serting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long be- 
fore another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced 
in its stead. 

II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Language, written or spoken, consists of words. In combining 
these into propositions and sentences, so as to express our ideas in 
a correct and intelligent manner, an accurate knowledge of their 
forms, changes and functions, is necessary, — and this again can be 
attained only by a proper classification of them according to their 
distinguishing characteristics and uses in the communication of 
thought. The importance of this has always been felt by gram- 
marians, and various classifications have been made, differing from 
each other according to the principles assumed as their basis. The 
essentials of speech were ancient!} 7 supposed to be sufficiently de- 
signated by the Noun and the Verb, to which was subsequently ad- 
ded, the Conjunction. In modern times, the parts of speech have 
been denominated Substantives, Attributives, Definitives, and Con- 
nectives. Such a classification, however, is too general to be of 
much use in grammar. To group together under one head, words 
specifically different in their character and use, can tend only to 
confusion; and to multiply divisions which can serve no practical 
purpose, is an extreme equally unprofitable. 

By a careful analysis of language, we find that some words are 
employed to express the names of things, others to indicate their 
qualities; some express action or state under various modifica- 
tions, others are used in connection with these to point out circum- 
stances of time, place, manner, order, degree, &c. ; some are em- 
ployed to denote certain relations of things to each other, and oth- 
ers again, chiefly to connect the different parts of a sentence toge- 
ther. This diversity in the use of words, is as real, and as dis- 
tinctly marked as the functions of the bones, muscles, arteries, and 
nerves of the human system, and forms a basis of classification 
equally proper in all languages. 

On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians 
divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz: the Arti- 



192 APPENDIX.— CLASSES OF WORDS. III. 1 

cle, Noun, Pronoun,. Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Con- 
junction. The Romans had no Article, but retained the same num- 
ber by distinguishing between Adverbs and Interjections. Both 
included under the term Noun, the names of things, and words 
expressive of their qualities; the former they called Substantive 
Nouns, — the latter Adjective Nouns. These were subsequently 
ranked as two distinct classes, commonly called Nouns or Substan- 
tives, and Adjectives; and the participle was restored to the 
verb, to which it properly belongs. This classification, with lit- 
tle variation, has been adopted by the best English grammarians, 
and remains in general use even at this day; and though not abso- 
lutely perfect or incapable of improvement, still it is sufficient for 
all practical purposes, and is perhaps, on the whole, the best that 
has yet been proposed. Objections to it merely on the ground 
that it agrees with the generally received classification of ancient, 
or foreign languages, are just about as reasonable as- objections to 
the anatomical classifications of ancient or foreign nations would 
be, merely because they happen to differ in stature, complexion, 
or features, from ourselves. Such objections have been, and still 
continue to be made, the futility of which needs no better illus- 
tration than the fact, that after all, their authors have offered little 
else in its stead, than the same or nearly the same divisions under 
different names. 

III. REMARKS ON DIFFERENT CLASSES OF 
WORDS. 

1. THE ARTICLE. 

The Article may properly be regarded as an adjective word, 
i. e. it is always employed in connexion with a noun or with 
words and phrases used as such. In Greek, and also in other lan- 
guages, it is declined like the adjective, and comes under the same 
rules of concord with it. The Articles in English are A or An, 
and The. Of these, the first is used to individualize without re- 
stricting. It is thereiore appropriately termed Indefinite, and is 
never used but with the singular number. 

This word is evidently a derivative of the Saxon numeral Ane, 
(one,) shortened by the absence of emphasis into An; or it may 
be regarded as the same word used in a particular way. For the 
sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant, and because 
most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more com- 
mon form. In the French, German, and other languages, which 
have the indefinite Article, its form is the same with their nume- 
ral one, and in reading or speaking, is distinguished from it by em- 
phasis only. Still, in these languages it is not regarded as a nu- 
meral, its office being specifically different. The office of the nu- 
meral is to designate number only — one as opposed to two or more. 
But though from its nature, this article is joined only with the 



III. 1. APPENDIX. CLASSES OF WOFvDS. 193 

singular, yet number is not the idea it is used to convey, but sim- 
ply to indicate an individual indefinitely. An example will illus- 
trate this. If I say, " Will one man be able to carry this burden 
so far?" I evidently oppose one to more, and the answer might 
be "No; but two men will." But if I say u Will a man be able 
to carry this burden?" it is manifest the idea is entirely changed, 
the reference is not to number, but to the species, and the answer 
might be "No; but a horse will." Translate these two sentences 
into Latin or Greek, or any language which does not use the in- 
definite article, and the first will necessarily have the numeral, the 
second will as necessarily want it. In this respect, the English 
has manifestly a decided advantage over those languages in which 
the same term is used both as an article and a numeral; and hence 
it appears to me that to class this article as a numeral, as some 
have proposed, would not only be in some measure to relinquish 
this advantage, but, by combining under one head, words whose 
use is so widely different, would prove an injury instead of an im- 
provement. 

The Article The, on the other hand, is used to restrict, and is 
therefore termed Definite. Its proper office is to call the attention 
to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and 
is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number. This 
word seems to be derived from the Saxon Se, (that,) plural Tha, 
and is distinguished from the demonstratives this, and that, much 
in the same way that a is distinguished from the numeral one. The 
Greeks had a separate word for this purpose, which the early 
grammarians called the prepositive Article, from its position before 
its noun; and to distinguish it from the relative pronoun which 
they called the postpositive Article, usually placed after it. These 
two words, in many sentences, were used relatively to each other, 
and like a joint, (Articulus,) from which the name is derived, 
served to unite the two members of the sentence to which they 
respectively belonged, into one whole. This designation, origi- 
nally given to this word from one of its prevailing uses, continued 
to be applied to it not only after the postpositive Article was more 
appropriately called the Relative pronoun, but also in cases in 
which no conjunction of the parts of a sentence was effected; and 
modern grammarians have extended it to the word known as the 
Indefinite Article. Whether a more appropriate designation for 
these words should now be devised, or whether they might be 
classed under some other head, are questions of no practical mo- 
ment. The words exist in the language, they have a specific of- 
fice to perform, they have peculiarities of construction which be- 
long to no other class of words, they are only two in number, and 
are easily distinguished from other parts of speech, and if these 
considerations should not be considered sufficient to entitle them 
strictly and philosophically to a separate denomination, they are 
such at any rate as to render it convenient and useful ; and if so, 
it seems unwise for the sake of a trivial advantage, even if that 



194 APPENDIX. — THE NOUN. III. 2. 

could be gained, to disturb the settled language of grammar on 
this point, and so to destroy its present similarity to that of most 
other languages, in which this division and nomenclature are re- 
ceived. 

In many sentences, The and That, are nearly equivalent, and the 
sense will be the same by using either, as " The man, or that man 
who hath no music in his soul," &c. This, however, does not al- 
ways hold; "The difference,'* says Crombie, (C seems to be 

1st. The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined with 
it, whereas that, like one, may have it understood; thus, speaking 
of books, I may select one, and say, e give me that; 3 but not, 
c give me the; 7 ' give me one; 7 but not < give me a.' Here the 
analogy holds between a and one; the and that . 

2d. " In general, the distinction between the and that, seems to 
be that the latter marks the object more emphatically than the 
former, being indirectly opposed to this. I cannot, for example, 
say i that man with that long beard,' without implying a contrast 
with this man with this long beard; the word that being always 
emphatical and discriminative." 

2. THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

The characteristic of this class of words, is that they are names. 
Every word that is the name of any thing that exists, whether 
material or immaterial, or of any thing that is, or can be made 
the subject of thought or discourse, is a noun. Hence it follows, 
that letters, marks, or characters, and words used independently 
of their meaning and merely as things spoken of, are nouns; thus 
J. is a vowel; honor is sometimes spelled with a u, and sometimes 
without it; th has two sounds; us is a pronoun; I will have no ifs 
or huts; -j- is the sign of addition. Hence also the infinitive mood, 
a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming 
together the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or pre- 
position, and being the name of an actor circumstance, are in con- 
struction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called " substantive 
phrases; 5 ' as " To play is pleasant," "His being an expert dancer 
is no recommendation," " Let your motto be ( Honesty is the best 
policy. 7 " 

The Accidents of the noun, in English, are in general, the 
same as in other languages, i. e. they have Person, Gender, Number, 
and Case; though in the details of these, there is some diversity 
in different languages, and even in different grammars of the same 
language. 

1st. Person. — The person of nouns is not determined by any 
difference of form, as in pronouns, but simply by their relation to 
the discourse. In direct discourse, * a noun used by a speaker or 

* Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker delivers his 
own sentiments; as, " I am the man." Oblique, when he relates in his 
his own language, the sayings of another; as, u He says that he is the 
man." See Lat, Gr. $141, Rule VL 



III. 2. APPENDIX. THE NOUK. 195 

writer to designate himself, is said to be of the first person — used 
to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second 
person, and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it 
is said to be of the third person. It is obvious then from the na- 
ture of the case, that those words only can be of the first or second 
person, which denote intelligent beings, or which by personifi- 
cation are regarded as such, for no other can either speak or be 
properly spoken to, and they are usually in apposition with the 
first or second personal pronouns, as « I, Artaxerxes make a de- 
cree," " I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto thee," ™ Thou, 
God seest me." 

A noun in the predicate, however, denoting either the speaker, 
or the person spoken to, is generally regarded as in the third per- 
son; thus, "I am he that liveth and was dead," "I am Alpha and 
Omega — who is, and who was, and who is to come." For this 
construction, and the variation of meaning which a change of per- 
son commonly indicates see §59, R. II, Obs. This rule, however, 
does not hold universally. In the following sentence, ei Verily 
thou art a God that hidest thyself," the word " God," in the pre- 
dicate, is evidently regarded as of the second person. So also in 
the phrases " It is I," " It is thou," &c. In oblique discourse, the 
third person only can be used. 

2d. Gender. — In all languages, the distinction of nouns with re- 
gard to sex, has been noted. Every substantive denotes either a 
male or female, or that which is neither the one nor the other. 
This accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender. 
In English, all words denoting male animals, are considered as 
masculine; all those denoting female animals, feminine; and those 
denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. " In 
this distribution," says Crombie, " we follow the order of nature, 
and our language is in this respect, both simple and animated." 
Both in Latin and Greek, many words denoting things without sex, 
are ranked as masculine or feminine, without any regard to their 
meaning, but simply on account of their terminations. In French, 
all nouns are regarded as either masculine or feminine, which is 
a still greater departure from the order and simplicity of nature, 
for which the English Language on this point is distinguished. 

Some have objected to the designation of three genders; they 
think that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philoso- 
phical and accurate, to say there are only two genders, and to re- 
gard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. A little 
reflection, I think, will show that this objection has no just found- 
ation, either in philosophy or in fact, and that the change it pro- 
poses would be no improvement. It has probably arisen from 
confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a kind, 
class, or species, (Lat. genus, French genre,) with the word sex, 
and considering them as synonymous. This, however, is not the 
case; these words do not mean precisely the same thing, and they 
cannot be properly applied in the same way. We never say, « the 



19b APPENDIX.- — THE ADJECTIVE. III. 8 

masculine sex, the feminine sex;' 5 nor ei the male gender, the fe- 
male gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word sex can be 
predicated only of animated being ; the word gender, only of the 
term by which that being is expressed. The being, man, has sex, 
not gender; the word, man, has gender, not sex. Though there- 
fore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very 
proper to speak of three genders; that is to say, there are three 
classes (genders,) of nouns, distinguished from each other by their 
relation to sex. One denotes objects of the male sex, and is call- 
ed masculine^ another denotes objects of the female sex, and is 
c&lled feminine; and the third denotes objects neither male nor fe- 
male, for which a name more appropriate than the term neuter, 
need not be desired. 

The term " Common gender," applied to such words as parent, 
child, friend, &c. does not constitute a distinct class of words, 
which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used 
for convenience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes 
denote a male and sometimes a female. Instead of " common, 53 
those who prefer it, may call such words " masculine or feminine. " 

3d. Case. — In the ancient languages, and also in the modern lan- 
guages of Europe, nouns in each number, have certain changes of 
termination called Cases, which serve to shew the relation exist- 
ing between them and other words in the sentence. Of these, the 
Latin has six, the Greek, five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the 
French, three, &c. In English, the only variation of the noun in 
each number, is that used to mark possession, and for this reason, 
commonly called the possessive case. The nominative and ob- 
jective do not differ in form, but only in their use, the former be- 
ing used to denote the subject of a verb, and the latter to denote 
the object of a verb or preposition. The propriety of this dis- 
tinction is manifest, from the fact, that in personal and relative 
pronouns, the objective case is distinguished from the nominative 
by a change of form. 

3. ADJECTIVE. 

Words of this class are supposed to have been originally nouns, 
the names of qualities or attributes, and from being joined to 
nouns whose quality or property they were employed to express, 
were called adjective nouns. In a more advanced state of language 
with few exceptions they cease to be used as nouns, and are em 
ployed to denote a quality, property or attribute, not separately, 
but in conjunction with its subject, Thus; when we say "a 
sto?ie" we have the generic name of a certain substance and no 
more; but when we say, "a round stone," ei a hard stone," "a 
smooth stone," we have the generic name, limited and described 
by the attributes of roundness, hardness, smoothness: and these 
as inherent in or belonging to the substance stone. The adjec- 
tive always implies the name of a quality or attribute, but does 
not present that idea alone to the mind, as when we speak 



III. 3. APPENDIX. TUB ADJECTIVE. 197 

of roundness, hardness, Sac. but that idea in concrete, — in con- 
junction with its subject. Hence it follows that a word which 
does not add to its noun the idea of some quality or attribute as 
belonging to it or connected with it, is not strictly speaking an ad- 
jective, and for this reason the articles, and the words generally 
ranked as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns, 
though adjectives in construction, are not so in sense and mean- 
ing. They express no quality, property or attribute of a noun, 
either separately or in connection with it, nor can they be pre- 
dicated of it. On the other hand all words which do make such 
an addition to the noun, may properly be regarded as adjectives, 
though they be often or generally used for other purposes. Thus 
the words "gold," "sea," "flower," are nouns, but when Ave 
say " a gold watch,*' " sea water,"' " a flower garden," they are 
used as adjectives. 

Comparison. — Adjectives denoting qualities or properties ca- 
pable of increase, and so of existing in different degrees, assume 
different forms to express a greater or less degree of such quality 
or property in one object compared with another, or with several 
others. These forms are three, and are appropria f ely denomi- 
nated the positive, comparative, and superlative. Some object to 
the positive being called a degree of comparison, because in its 
ordinary use it does not, like the comparative and superlative forms, 
necessarily involve comparion. And they think it more philoso- 
phical to say, that the degrees of comparison are only two, the 
comparative and superlative. This, however, with the appear- 
ance of greater exactness is little else than a change of words, 
and a change perhaps not for the better. If we deline a degree 
of compariron 'a form of the adjective which necessarily im- 
plies comparison/ 7 this change would be just, but this is not what 
grammarians mean, when they say there are three degress of 
comparison. Their meaning is that there are three forms of the 
adjective, each of which, when comparison is intended, expresses 
a different degree of the quality or attribute in the things com- 
pared: Thus, if we compare wood, stone, and iron, with re- 
gard to their weight, we would say "wood isheavy, stone heavier, 
and iron is the heaviest. 7 ' Each of these forms of the adjective 
in this comparison expresses a different degree of weight in the 
things compared, the positive heavy expresses one degree, the 
comparative heavier, another, and the superlative heaviest, a third, 
and of these the first is as essential an element in the comparison 
as the second, or the third. Indeed there never can be compari- 
son without the statement of at least two degrees, and of these 
the positive form of the adjective either expressed or implied, 
always expresses one. When we say " wisdom is more precious 
than rubies," two degrees of value are compared, the one ex- 
pressed by the comparative, " more precious," the other neces- 
sarily implied. The meaning is " rubies are precious, wisdom is 
more precious." Though, therefore, it is true, that the simple 



198 APPENDIX PRONOUNS. III. 4 

form of the adjective does not always, nor even commonly de- 
note comparison, yet as it always does indicate one of the de- 
grees compared whenever comparison exists, it seems proper to 
rank it with the other forms, as a degree of comparison. This 
involves no impropriety, it produces no confusion, it leads to no 
error, it has a positive foundation in the nature of comparison, 
and it furnishes an appropriate and convenient appellation for this 
form of the adjective, by which to distinguish it in speech from 
the other forms. 

4. PRONOUNS. 

The term pronoun (Lat pronomen) strictly means a word used 
for, or instead of a noun. In English, Pronouns are usually di- 
vided into three general classes, personal, relative, and adjective. 
The first or personal, includes also compound pronouns which in 
the nominative are emphatic or definite, and in the objective, re- 
flexive, § 15. 2. The second or relative, (except "that") with- 
out any change of form become s interrogative in asking questions, 
§ 17. All the words in these two classes both in sense and con- 
struction are used as nouns, and instead of nouns. 

The third class called adjective pronouns, and sometimes pro- 
nominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distri- 
butive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these the first or possess- 
ive are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly 
pronouns, being- always the representative or substitute of a noun; 
but in construction they are adjectives and are always joined with 
a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro- 
nouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectively. By some they are less ap- 
propriately classed with adjectives ; and called pronominal adjec- 
tives s 

In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our, 
your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal 
pronouns, with mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, 
making two 'forms of the possessive case, thus; my or mine, thy 
or thine, &c. In the use of these forms this difference is to be 
observed, viz : that the first is always followed by a noun denot- 
ing the thing possessed; as, "this is my book;" the latter never 
has the noun following it, but seems as it were to include it, as 
weir as to be governed by it; as, " this book is not mine;" — equi- 
valent to ce this book is not my book." The possessive case of the 
noun is used both ways; as, (e this is John's book," or, "this 
book is John's." Which of these methods is adopted in teach- 
ing or studying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment; 
some grammarians adopt the one and some the other, merely as 
a matter of taste without any controversy on the subject. The 
classification in the text is preferred as being on the whole more 
simple, — because the possessives my, thy, &c. like the adjective, 
can never stand alone, as the possessive case does, but must be 
supported by a noun following them ; Thus we say, « It is the 






III. 4. APPENDIX PRONOUNS. 199 

king's," "It is yours;" but we cannot say "It is your," the pre- 
sence of a noun being- necessary to the last expression; — and be- 
cause if these words are ranked as the possessive case of the per- 
sonal pronoun, it unnecessarily leaves the English language with- 
out a class of words, corresponding to the possessive pronouns of 
other languages. They have precisely the same meaning as the 
Latin Mens, mea, meum- or the French Mon, ma, or the Ger- 
man Mein, (or meiner) meine, mein- or the Anglo-Saxon, (which 
is the mother of the English language,) Min, mine, min, — and 
they are used in precisely the same way. There seems therefore, 
to be no good reason for giving them a different classification. 
Indeed, the only circumstance which renders it possible to regard 
them as a possessive case in English, is that like the English ad- 
jective they are indeclinable. Had they been declinable, like 
the Latin or French, &c. they never could have been used as a 
possessive case. The theory which would class the possessive 
mine, thine, hers, yours, &c. as the nominative or objective, be- 
cause we can say for example, <( Mine is better than yours, " 
seems unworthy of a moment's notice. 

The words belonging to the other three divisions, have been 
found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They 
seem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and 
pronouns, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as 
the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either. 
They are not adjectives in sense as already shewn. App. III. 2, 
but they are generally adjectives in construction, having a noun 
expressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in 
various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are 
so often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not 
improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict 
than the others. Thus, (( Let each esteem others better than them- 
selves. " « Among men, some are good, others bad, nom perfect." 
" All things come alike to all," &c. 

From this equivocal or rather double character of these words, 
they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, 
among whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, SutclhTe, Allen, Coop- 
er, Brown, &c. class them with adjectives, and call them U Pro- 
nominal Adjectives ;" and others, such as Lowth, Priestly, Smart, 
Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, Cobbet, Kirkham, 
Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and call them 
" Adjective Pronouns." Since all are agreed about the use of 
these words, it seems in itself a matter of less importance to 
which of these two classes they be attached, or whether the}' are 
more appropriately called Pronominal Adjectives or Adjective 
Pronouns. But as in the Latin and Greek and in most,ifnot all 
European languages, almost all of the corresponding words 
are ranked uniformly as adjective pronouns; and as there is no 
necessity for, and no advantage to be derived from a different 
classification, it seems to be unwise, merely for the sake of change 



200 APPENDIX. THE VERB. III. 5a 

or the love of singularity, to depart from this arrangement in 
English. 

5. THE VERB. 

1. Definition — The proper definition of this part of speech, 
its division into classes, and the distribution, arrangement, and 
nomenclature of its different parts, grammarians have found to be 
a task of no small difficulty, and their endeavors to execute it 
have not always proved satisfactory either to themselves or others. 
Of the many definitions and classifications that have been proposed, 
none are entirely free from objections; and the same variety that 
occurs on this subject in English grammars, is found also in the 
grammars of foreign languages. As a definition, I have met with 
nothing more brief and accurate than that given in the text. 

2. Murray's Division. — The classification of verbs has been 
and still is a vexed question. In accordance with his definition, 
Murray has divided verbs into three classes, Active, Passive, and 
Neuter, and includes in the first class transitive verbs only, and in 
the last all verbs used intransitively. To this classification it is 
objected. 1st. That it makes active and passive two different 
classes, whereas they constitute properly but one class, under two 
different forms. Active and passive are in fact but different forms 
or parts of one and the same verb, and consequently must be re- 
garded as belonging to one class. § 21 Obs. 1. — 2d. It confines 
the use of the term " transitive' 5 to the active voice, whereas verbs 
in the passive form are as really transitive as in the active form. 
§ 21, as above. 3d. If this inaccuracy be corrected by referring 
all transitive verbs, whether active or passive in form to one class, 
the term iC Neuter" (neither of the two) will be inappropriate as 
a designation for the class to which it is now applied. 

3. Kirkham's Division. — The division of Murray, however, 
is better than that of Kirkham, Smith, and some others, who 
agree with Murray, in dividing verbs into active, passive, and 
neuter, but differ from him in ranking what they call intransitive 
verbs, under the general head of active verbs, and designating 
by the term " neuter", those verbs only which are supposed not to 
denote action at all, but only being in a certain state, and that of 
course not a state of action. This division is liable to all the ob- 
jections that lie against the division of Murray, and to others 
still more serious, as; 

1st. It creates a distinction between intransitive and neuter 
verbs, which it is often very difficult to make, and when made, 
whether correctly or not, is of no use whatever in grammar, as 
those verbs called intransitive, and those called neuter, in construc- 
tion, are always used in precisely the same way, — they neither 
nave nor need a regimen. 

2d. It unites in one class in Etymology, words which must be 
distinguished in Syntax, namely, transitive and intransitive verbs, 
the former of which, in the active voice, always have a regimen, 



III. 5. APPENDIX. THE VERB. 201 

and the latter never, but are used in the same way as neuter verbs. 
Whenever an intransitive verb takes a regimen, it thereby be- 
comes transitive, and should be so denominated. 

3d. By confining the term neuter to verbs which do not ex- 
press action, whenever, in construction, verbs of this class are used 
transitively, as often happens, we are led to regard as active a 
verb, whose characteristic is that it expresses no action whatever. 
For example; when we say of a person, "He lived and died in 
peace with all men," "lived" and "died are both neuter verbs, i.a, 
they express neither action nor passion. But when we say, "he 
lived the life and died the death of the righteous," they both be- 
ome active and transitive verbs, and yet neither of them express 
any more action in this case than they did in the other. 

4. Browx's Division. — Mr. Brown, and some others with him 
divide verbs into four classes. Active-transitive, Active-intransi- 
tive, Passive, and Neuter. This differs from the preceding only 
in dividing the active verbs of that division into two classes, ac 
tive-transitive, and active-intransitive — a distinction also made in 
the other case in the form of an observation. It is of course lia- 
ble to nearly the same objections. This four-fold division is 
faulty in the following respects. 1st. The first and third proper- 
ly constitute but one class, as they both express transitive action, 
and differ only in form, the one being in the active voice and the 
other in the passive. 2d. In a four-fold division of verbs, the 
term "neuter" (neither of the two) as a designation of one class 
has no appropriate meaning. 3d. The second and fourth divi- 
sions should be classed under one head, as they are both intransi- 
tive, and are used in the construction of sentences in precisely 
the same way. 

5. It has been already noticed that verbs usually neuter and in- 
transitive, are sometimes used transitively. In such cases, they 
should be denominated transitive verbs. In like manner, transi- 
tive verbs are sometimes used intransitively. When we say of a 
person that "he reads, writes, and converses well, labors dili- 
gently, lives happily, and sleeps soundly," we have six verbs, of 
which the first two are in sense, active-transitive verbs, because a 
person cannot read or write without reading or writing something, 
and yet it is manifest there is nothing active or transitive intended 
to be expressed ; the whole idea conveyed by these words in this 
sentence, is simply "he is a good reader and a good writer." 
" Reads," and writes,"' here, are just as intransitive as " conver- 
ses,"' or "labors,"* or "sleeps" — in fact, that all the six verbs are 
used in a manner precisely alike, to express certain habits, capa- 
cities, or states, of the subject " he." It is manifest, therefore, 
that in parsing such a sentence, "reads" and "writes" should be 
described as transitive verbs used intransitively, or more simply 
as intransitives. From all these facts taken together, I think the 
following positions are fully warranted, viz : 

1st. That the presence or the absence of action, simply coasi- 



202 APPENDIX.— GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE. IV, 

dered, does not form a proper characteristic for a useful classifi- 
cation of verbs. 

2d. That the only distribution of verbs of any utility, in Syntax, 
is that which is founded, (not on the intrinsic meaning of the 
word, but) on the use made of it in the construction of a sentence. 

6 The classification in the text, is founded on this principle, 
and while it avoids most of the objections to the classifications al- 
ready mentioned, it has also the following advantages: 

1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intran- 
sitive, distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic, derived 
from their use in the construction of sentences. To the first, be- 
long those which are used transitively, whatever be their mean- 
ing or form ; and to the second all that are used intransitively, 
whether they denote action or not. §19. 

2d. This arrangement and nomenclature, leaves the terms Ac- 
tive and Passive, at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two 
forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and pas- 
sive voice. 

3d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to 
verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the desig- 
nation of gender only. 

This classification of the verb has been adopted in the best 
grammars of the Greek and Latin languages, and in some respecta- 
ble English grammars lately published ; it is advocated by Mr. 
Webster, in his dissertations on the English language ; — is adopted 
in his English Grammar, and dictionary; and from its greater 
simplicity, accuracy, and utility, appears likely to prevail. 

7. Moods and Tenses. — In the observations on the Moods and 
Tenses in their proper place, all has been said that seems to be 
necessary. 

IV. GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

Every science, and every art, has its particular nomenclature, 
or vocabulary of technical terms, which are employed for the pur- 
pose of expressing technically, its leading materials, facts, princi- 
ples, divisions, &c. These terms are generally derived from the 
Greek or Latin, probably because these languages being now 
dead, and their words consequently not liable to change, are con- 
sidered, for this reason, a better source than any other, for words 
of this description. The convenience and utility of such terms, 
are universally acknowledged, and they are preferred to other 
equivalent terms in common use in the language, because having 
no other meaning nor use than what belongs to them as technical 
terms, whenever they are used, every person who understands the 
science, knows precisely what is meant. The fact of their being 
of foreign origin — of fixed and determinate signification, and not 
employed in the language to denote any thing else, is not only no 
objection to their use, but is in reality a decided advantage. A se- 



IV. APPENDIX. GRAMMATICAL NOMENCLATURE. 203 

rious proposal to abandon, in Chemistry for example, such terms 
as gas, acid, oxygen, hydrogen, &c. and to substitute their English 
equivalents air, sour, sour-making, water -making, and the like, 
would be considered not only injurious, but ridiculous. And yet 
this very thing, some men are attempting to do, in the science of 
grammar, arid urging it as a great improvement. They have such 
an aversion to the Cl dead languages," and every thing " foreign," 
and are so much afraid of the "genius of the English language," 
being contaminated by such connections, that they are actually 
urging us to abandon such terms in grammar, as Noun, Pronoun, 
Adjective, Verb, &c. and to use in their stead, such words as 
name, substitute, describer, asserler, and the like, because as is 
alleged, they possess more of the character of English words, — 
i. e. they propose to abandon the peculiar and appropriate technical 
terms of the science, and to employ words in a great measure dis- 
qualified for this purpose, by the very fact of their being already 
used for other purposes. In order to illustrate this, take a single 
example. When we use the word "Noun," every one knows 
that we speak of a class of words so denominated in grammar, be- 
cause the term has no other meaning. But if instead of the term 
noun, we use the word name, this precision and clearness is im- 
mediately lost, because this word being applied to other things, 
is less definite in its meaning. 

li Ambiguam tellure nova Salamina futuram.' 
To put this matter to the test of experiment, let any one ask a 
boy acquainted with grammar, " What is a Noun?" and he will 
answer at once, and correctly, by giving its definition in grammar, 
"A noun is the name of a thing." " But if instead of this you 
ask him, " What is a name?" unless he know beforehand that you 
mean name in a grammatical sense, he will probably be at a loss 
for an answer; and on referring to Johnson or Walker, (who ne- 
ver heard of the term "name" applied in this way,) he will find 
it has, according to them, nine different shades of meaning, and no 
one of these would be a correct answer to the question proposed. 
If in this way, we should go through the whole nomenclature of 
grammar, and instead of the technical terms now in use, and well 
understood, we should employ a translation of them, or their 
equivalent in English words in common use, it would be manifest 
that by such a change, the whole science would at once become 
vague and unintelligible — a mass of confusion. For these rea- 
sons, I think there can be no doubt, that in grammar, as well as 
in other sciences, technical terms appropriate in themselves, hav- 
ing but one specific meaning, and that accurately defined, are much 
more convenient and useful, both for teacher and pupil, than any 
other terms can be ; and that every attempt to simplify grammar 
by substituting words in common use in the English language, for 
the technical terms now employed, or others of similar charac- 
ter, will tend only to greater obscurity and difficulty. 



204 



APPENDIX.— GLOSSARY, 



V. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 



Accent, [Lat. accentus from ac- 
cino, accentum, ad. and cano, to 
sing to,] stress of voice laid 
on a particular syllable. 

Accident, [Lat. accido, to fall 
to, to happen, ad and cado,] 
something- that falls to, i. e. 
belongs to a word, but not es- 
sential to it; as person, gen- 
der, number, case, compari- 
son, mood, tense, Sic. 

Active, [Lat. activus, active 
from ago, to act,] denotes a 
form of the verb, the subject 
of which acts, or is active. In 
many grammars, a class of 
verbs which express action. 

Adjective, [Lat. Adjectivus, 3id- 
ded, joined to, from adjicio, i. 
e. ad, to, and jacio, to lay, put, 
&c] the designation of a class 
of words. See definition, §13. 

Adverb, [Lat. from ad, to, and 
veroum, a word, the verb, i. 
e. added or joined to a verb,] 
a class of words. See defini- 
tion, §33. 

Allegory, [Gr. dXhriyopia, from 
dWriyopico, to intrepret differ- 
ently from what the words 
seem to imply, from liWog, and 
dycpiw, to speak in public, Th. 
dyopl, a forum or public place,] 
a figure of speech. See def. 
§94. 

Antithesis, [Gr. dvriOscig, op- 
position, contrast, from avri, 
opposite, and rifftifjuy to place; 
hence to place opposite or in 
contrast,] a figure of speech. 
See def. §94. 

Apostrophe, [Gr. diro<rrpr.(f>fiy 
turning away, viz : from the 
subject of discoure to another 
object, d-6, from, and arptyw, 
to turn,] a figure of speech. 
See def. §94. 



Apposition, [Lat. appositus 9 
placed near or together,] a 
noun placed near, or by ano- 
ther, in the same construction^, 
for the purpose of further de- 
fining it, is said to be in appo- 
sition; as " Cicero, the Ora- 
tor. 55 

Article, [Lat. Articulus,%. joints 
from artus, alimb,]one of the 
parts of speech. See def. §4; 
and for the reason of the name, 
App. Ill, 1. 

Auxiliary, [Lat. auxiliaris 9 
helping, from auxilium, aid,] 
a designation of certain verbs, 
§20. 

Case, [Lat. Casus, from cado, — . 
casum, to fall;] hence the 
particular circumstances into 
which a person or thing falls 5 
or happens to be, is called his, 
or its case. So a noun in cer- 
tain circumstances, is in one 
case, in different circumstan- 
ces it is in another case. See 
def. §11. 

Climax, [Gr. K\tpa$ 9 a scale or 
ladder,] a figure in rhetoric, 
by which the sense of the ex- 
pressions rises gradually 'in 
strength, from step to step. 
See def. §94. 

Colon, [Gr. k&Xov, a member or 
limb; hence in grammar, a 
member or part of a sentence,] 
a mark ( :) by which a mem- 
ber of a sentence is indicated. 

Comma, [Gr. Ko^^a, a segment, 
from kottto), to cut off,] a mark 
(,) indicating the smallest seg- 
ment or division of a sentence* 

Comparative, [Lat. from com- 
paro, to compare,] a form of 
the adjective, expressing a 
greater or less degree than the 
positive. 



APPENDIX. GLOSSARY. 



Concord, [Lat concors, agree- 
ing; concordia, agreement,] a 
term in Syntax denoting the 
agreement of words in certain 
accidents. See def. §45. 

Conjugation, [Lat. conjugatio, 
from con, together, and jugo, 
to yoke or join,] arranging and 
joining the different parts of a 
verb together in their proper 
order. 

Conjunction, [Lat. conjunctio, 
from con, together, smdjungo, 
to join,] a word whose use is 
to join together. See def. §36. 

Consonant, [Lat. consonans, 
sounding together, con and so- 
no,] a letter sounded not alone, 
but together with a vowel. 

Copula, [Lat. copula, a band or 
tie,] that by which the subject 
and predicate of a proposition 
are coupled together; some- 
times a separate word, as am, 
is, are, &c. and sometimes im- 
plied in the predicate itself, 
as I write, i. e. I am writing. 

Declension, [Lat. declinatio, 
from declino, to decline,] de- 
clining or changing the ter- 
mination of nouns, &c. so as 
to form the oblique eases. 

Declinable, [Lat. from the 
same,] that may be declined or 
changed in termination. 

Demonstrative, [Lat. from de- 
monstro, to point out,or shew,] 
a word that indicates or points 
out clearly, as this man, that 
book, &c. 

Dijsresis, [Gr. Stcuoevts, a divi- 
sion, cia and alpecj,'] a mark 
( " ) over the last of two vow- 
els, shewing they are to be 
divided in pronunciation, as 
aerial, a-erial. 

Diphthong, [Gr. ttydoyyoc, a 
double sound, from Sic, twice, 
and <pQ6yyoc ? a sound,] the un- 



ion of two vowel sounds in 
one syllable. 

Dissyllable, [Gr. 6iffav\\a6fj 9 
oic, twice, and Gv\\a6fi,~\a. word 
of two syllables. See Syllable. 

Distributive, [Lat. distributi- 
vus, from distribuo, to distri- 
bute or divide,] a word that 
distributes or divides; as each 9 
every, &c. shewing the indi- 
viduals of a collective number 
as taken separately. 

Ellipsis, [Gr. s AAmpt?,omission, 
leaving out, tv, and Xenix*, to 
leave,] a figure by which a 
word or words are omitted, 
which belong to the full gram- 
matical construction of a sen- 
tence. See def. §94. 

Emphasis, [Gr. sucpaois, h, and 
(pdaig, a charge, a shewing,] 
stress or force laid on a cer- 
tain word or part of a sentence, 
shewing or making it con- 
spicuous. 

Etymology, [Gr. ervfjo^oyla, 
from krvixoXoyeco, to derive a 
word from its original, and 
thus to discover its true mean- 
ing— £tvh<)v, true, and Xlyu, to 
tell,] the derivation of words. 
Also, that part or division in 
grammar, which treats of their 
formation, inflections, and 
modifications. 

Feminine, [Lat. femininus, 
from femina, a woman,] the 
name of the gender of words 
denoting females 

Future, [Lat. Futurus, about to 
be,] the name of a tense de« 
noting time yet to come. 

Future-Perfect, [Lat. Futu- 
rum-perfectum,'] a tense deno- 
ting an act or event completed 
at some future time. 

Gender, [Lat. genus, Fr. genre, 
kind, or class.] See def. §7 P 
and App. lit. 2, 2d. 



208 



APPENDIX GLOSSARY. 



Grammar, [Gr. ypaptfjiaTiKn, from 
ypajx^a, a letter, a writing, and 
that from ypdcpco, to write. Fr. 
grammaire,'] the science of 
letters or language. See def. 
p. 1, and App. I, p. 189. 

Hyperbole, [Greek, vjrepSoM, 
throwing over or beyond, 
hence excess, exaggeration, 
inip, over, and 6ol\X<o, to 
throw,] a figure of speech, de- 
fined §94. 

Imperfect, [Lat. Impeifectum, 
not completed,] a tense pro- 
perly denoting an act, &c. not 
completed at a certain past 
time. §23, 2 and 24, II. 

Indicative, [Lat. indico, — are, 
to declare,] a mood or form 
of the verb which simply de- 
clares. See def. §22. 

Infinitive, [Lat. in, negative, 
and finitus, limited or bound- 
ed,] a mood of the verb not 
limited by person or number 
§22, 5, and Obs. 4. 

Interjection, [Lat. Interjectio, 
from inter, bet ween, or among, 
and jacio, to throw,] a word 
or phrase having no gram 
matical connection with a sen 
tence, but as it were thrown 
into it, to express some sudden 
emotion of the mind. 

Intransitive, [Lat. in, nega- 
tive, and transitivus 9 ]not pass- 
ing over. See " Transitive." 

Irony, [Gr. dpoivda, from Upcov, 
a dissembler,] a figure of 
speech. See def. §94. 

Masculine, [Lat. from mas, a 
male,] the gender of nouns 
and pronouns which designate 
males. 

Metaphor, [Gr. pzracbopa, from 
psTa<pZp(i), to transfer,] a word 
expressing similitude with- 
out the signs of comparison, 
by which the property of one 



object is,asit were, transferred 
to another, thus when we say, 
"that man is a fox,'' the 
meaning is, " that man is like 
a fox ;" the figure transfers the 
leading property of the fox, to> 
the man. See def. §94. 

Metonymy, [Gr. ^rwyy/na, a 
change of name; from ^ra, 
denoting change, and ovofxa, a 
name,] a figure by which one 
word is put for another. See 
def. §94. 

Metre, [Gr. from yirp^v, a mea- 
sure,] a composition, the lines 
of which contain a certain? 
measure of long and short syl- 
lables, arrangec] according to 
rule. See def. §93. 

Monosyllable, [Gr. from [xouos, 
only, or one, and a-olXaSn, a 
syllable,] a word of one syl- 
lable. See Syllable. 

Mood or Mode, [Lat. modus 9 
manner,] a form of the vei'b 
expressing its meaning in a 
certain manner. See def. §22. 

Neuter, [Lat. neuter, neither,} 
an epithet given to nouns 
which are neither masculine 
nor feminine. Also, in some 
grammars, to verbs denoting 
being or a state of being. 

Nominative (case,) [Lat. nomi- 
nativus, from nomino, to name,] 
the first case of a noun or pro- 
noun, or that used when a per- 
son or thing is simply named. 

Noun, [Lat. nomcn a name,] a 
word that is the name of an 
object, is in grammar called 
a Noun. See def. § 6. 

Objective (case,) [Lat. objcc<» 
tivus from ob and jacio, to 
throw to, against, or in the 
way of,] the case of a noun 
or pronoun which denotes the 
object of a transitive verb, or 
preposition. 



A.PPEODIX. — GLOSS ART. 



207 



Orthography, [Gr. 6pfaypa<pia 3 
from 6-dSc, Tight, and ypatp-n 
writing,] writing words cor- 
rectly, i. e. with the proper 
letters. 

PARALEPSIS, [Gr. TrapjXsiipig, 
omission ; from -ao'i, and \si~to, 
to leave,] a figure of speech, 
§ 94. 

Parenthesis, [Gr. -xaphvzcis, 
from xapa and iv-iBnyh to in- 
sert,] a word, phrase, or sen- 
tence inserted in a sentence for 
explanation, but not connect- 
ed with it in construction, and 
therefore, usually distinguised 
by a mark at the beginning and 
end, thus ( ). 

Parse, [Derivation uncertain,] 
to resolve a sentence into its 
elements, or parts of speech. 
§ 38. 

Participle, [Lat. participium, 
from pars, a part, and capio 
to take,] a part of the verb 
which partakes of the verb 
and the adjective, having its 
signification and time from the 
former, and declension and 
construction from the latter. 

Passive (voice,) [Lat. Passi- 
vus, from patior to suffer, or 
to be affected in any way,] a 
form of the verb which indi- 
cates that its subject or nomi- 
native receives, or is affected 
by the action expressed by the 
verb. §21. 

Perfect, [Lat. Perfectum, from 
perficio, to perfect or com- 
plete,] a tense of the verb, 
denoting that the action or 
state expressed by it is now 
completed or past. See def. § 
23, 4, and § 24, III. 

Period, [Gr. vepiofyg, a circuit, 
from -eat, round and beds, a 
Way,] a complete sentence, 
one which has its construction 



completed, or brought round. 

Personification, [Lat. from 
persona a person, and facio, to 
make,] a figure, by which 
inanimate objects are regarded 
as persons, or as it were, made 
so. Se$ def - § 94- 

Pluperfect, [Lat. plus quam 
perfectum, more than perfected 
or completed, i. e. completed 
before a certain time now 
past,] the designation of a 
tense defined. § 23, 4, and 
24, 4. 

Polysyllable, [Gr. from ttoXuc, 
man5 T , and avWaSf., a syllable,] 
a word of many syllables. 
See Syllable. 

Potential, [Lat. potentialis, be- 
longing to power or ability, 
from potens, able,] the desig- 
nation of a certain mood of 
the verb defined, § 22, 2. 

Predicate, [Lat. prccdicatus, 
from pradico, to assert, or de- 
clare,] that part of a proposi- 
tion which contains what is 
affirmed or asserted of its sub- 
ject, § 43. 

Preposition, [Lat. prxpositio, 
from propositus, placed be- 
fore,] a class of words so 
called, because their ^position 
in a sentence is before the word 
governed by them. See def. 
§35, 

Pronoun, [Lat. pronomen, from 
pro, for, i. e. instead of, and 
nomen, a name or noun,] a 
word used for, or instead of a 
noun. 

Proposition, [Lat. propositio, 
from pro, before, and positus, 
placed,] a simple sentence, in 
which a distinct idea is pro- 
posed, or set before the mind, 

Prosody, [Gr. ttoocojcli, from 
ttqos, with or belonging to, 
and £)6fi 9 an ode,] anciently 



208 



APPENDIX. SLOSSARY. 



V. 



the doctrine of accents and 
quantity, &c. See p. 163. 

PROSOPOPEIA, [Gr. TrpooaTroirolia, 

from TrpoaojTToi', a person, and 
noieco, to make,] the Greek 
term for Personification. 

Semicolon, [Lat. semi half, 
and Gr. colony'] a point ( ;), 
denoting a division of a sen- 
tence less than a colon. 

Simile, [Lat. simile, like,] a fi- 
gure of speech, by which one 
thing is compared or likened 
to another. § 94. 

Solecism, [Gr. <xo\oiKi<rfx6g, sup- 
posed to be derived from Solii, 
the name of a people in Cili- 
eia, who spoke the Greek lan- 
guage very ungrammatically,] 
a gross violation of the idiom, 
or Syntax of a language. 

Subject, [Lat. subjectus, from 
subjicio, to place before or un- 
der, (the view,) ] in a propo- 
sition, the person or thing 
spoken of. 

Subjunctive (mood,) [Lat. sub- 
junctivus, from subjungo, to 
subjoin or annex to,] a mood 
of the verb never used inde- 
pendently, and by itself, but 
subjoined or annexed to the 
main or leading verb in a sen- 
tence. See § 22, 3, and Obs. 2. 

Substantive, [Lat. Substantia 
vus, from substantia,substsLnce] 
the same as noun, viz. a class 
of words denoting things that 
have substance, or existence, 
material or immaterial. 

Superlative, [Lat. superlati- 
vus, from super, above, and 
latus, carried i. e. carried 
above, viz. other things,] a 
form of the adjective, expres- 
ing a degree of the quality 
carried above, or superior to 
that in any of several objects 
compared. 



Syllable, [Gr. avWaSfjy from 
gov together, and \an6avu, to 
take,] a letter or number of 
letters taken together, and form- 
ing one vocal sound, § 1. 

Synecdoche, [Gr. owsKSoxf}, 
from cvv, and ^Je^-Ojuaj, to 
take,] a figure of speech de- 
fined, § 94. 

Syntax, [Gr. <n,Wa£i?, from cvv 
together, and rdaaoj to put in 
order] the proper arrange- 
ment or putting together of 
words in a sentence. 

Tense, [Lat. tempus, time, Fr» 
terns,] a form of the verb by 
which the time of an act, &c» 
is indicated. 

Transitive, [Lat. transitivus? 
from transeo, to go or pass 
over,] the name of a class of 
verbs, which express an act 
that passes over from an agent 
to an object, § 19, 3. 

Triphthong, [Gr. from Tpd$» 
three, and q>96yyog, a sound,] 
the union of three vowels in 
one sound. 

Trissyllable, [Gr. rpzTg, three* 
and <jv\\a6v„ a syllable,] a word 
of three syllables. 

Verb, [Lat. verbum, a word,] 
the name of a class of words 
which being the chief or most 
important in a sentence, were 
called verbum, the word, viz„ 
by way of eminence. 

Verse, [Lat. versus, from verto, 
to turn,] a species of compo- 
sition, in which every line is 
measured, so as to contain a 
certain number of feet, at the 
end of which the writer turns 
to a new line. 

Vowel, [Lat. vocalis, from vox> 
the voice,] a letter which 
marks a distinct and indepen- 
dent sound, without the aid of 
other letters* 



VI. APPENDIX. FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES 209 

VI. FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The following French words and phrases, are often met with m 
English writers. They are here explained for the benefit of those 
unacquainted with the French language. In the following repre- 
sentation of French sounds, a has the sound of a in hat; — a of a in 
lade ; — a of a in fall ; — e of e in her, e of e in bed ; — i of i in sit ; — 5 
of o in hot, 6 of o in bone ; — u of u in cur / oo of oo in coo. The 
French u, and eu, and oeu, have no corresponding sounds in the 
English language, nor can they be represented by letters ; the first 
is intermediate between o and u, and is pronounced with the lips 
nearly closed (the upper projecting), leaving only a small hole in 
the middle, as if to blow a flute : this sound is here represented by 
u; — eu, and oeu are more full and open than u; they are here 
represented by u : — r is sounded hard like rr. The nasal vowels an, 
in, on, un, cannot be represented by letters, The articulation of 
the n must end when the tip of the tongue is at the root of the 
lower teeth, without any motion towards the roof of the mouth. 
The English syllables ang, aing, ong, ung, though not a correct, are 
still the nearest representation of the sound that can be made to 
the eye. Indeed, it is impossible by means of letters to represent 
the correct pronunciation of most French words. This can be done 
only to the ear. The following therefore is to be regarded only as 
the nearest that can be given ; and for this I am indebted to my 
friend Prof. Molinard. 

Aide-de-camp, aid-de-kang, an assistant to a general. [time. 

A la bonne heure, a la bonn urr, at an early hour ; in the nick of 

Affaire de coeur, affair de kurr, a love affair ; an amour. 

A la mode, a la mod, according to the fashion. 

Allons, allong, come, let us go. 

A propos, a pro-po, to the purpose, opportunely. 

Au fait, 6 fay, well acquainted with, thoroughly versed in. 

Au fond, o fong, to the bottom, or main point. 

Auto da £4, 6-to-da fa ; (Portuguese,) burning of heretics. 

Bagatelle, bagatell, a trifle. 

Beau monde, bo mongd, the gay world ; people of fashion. 

Beaux esprits, boz espree, men of wit, 

Billet doux, bee-ye doo, a love letter. 

Bon mot, bong mo, a piece of wit ; a jest ; a quibble. 

Bon ton, bong tong, in high fashion. 

Bon gre\ mal gr6, bong gra, mal gra, with a good, or ill grace? 
whether the party will or not. 

Bon jour, bong zhoor, good day. 

Boudoir, boo-do-ar, a small private apartment. 

Canaille, ca-na-ye, lowest of the people ; rabble ; mob. 

Carte blanche, kart blangsh, a blank sheet of paper ; uncondi* 

Chateau, sha-to, a country seat. [tional terms. 

Chef d'oeuvre, she duvr, a master-piece. 

Ci devant, see devang, formerly. 

Comme il faut, kom il f 6, as it should be. 



210 APPENDIX.— FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES. VI 

Con amore, kon amora, {Italian,) with love ; gladly. [stroke. 

Coup de grace, koo de grass, a stroke of mercy ; the finishing 

Coup de main, koo de maing, a sudden or bold enterprise. 

Coup d'ceil, koo du-ee-ye, a quick glance of the eye. 

D'ailleurs, da yurr, moreover, besides. 

Debut, da-bw, the beginning ; the lead ; first appearance. 

Dernier ressort, dern-ya ressorr, the last shift or resource. 

De"pot, da-po, a store or magazine. [meaning. 

Double entendre, (a double entente,) doobl ang-t&ngdr, doubl© 

Douceur, doos-surr, a present or bribe. 

Dieu et mon droit, dee-u a mong dro-ah, God and my right. 

Eclat, a-cla, splendor. — Eleve, a-lev, a pupil. 

Elite, a-leet, choice ; prime ; of the better sort. 

Embonpoint, ang-bong-po-aing, in good condition ; jolly. 

En flute, ang flute, carrying guns on the upper deck only. 

En masse, ang-mass, in a body, or mass. 

En passant, ang passang, by the way ; in passing. 

Ennui, ang-nw-ee, wearisomeness. — Entree, ang-tra, entrance* 

Faux pas, fo pa, a slip ; misconduct. 

Fete, f ayte, a feast or entertainment. 

Honi soi qui mal y pense, ho-nee soah kee mal ee pangce, evil b© 

Hauteur, ho-turr, haughtiness. • [to him that evil thinks* 

Je ne sais quoi, zhe ne say koah, I know not what. 

Jeu de mots, zhu de mo, a play upon words. 

Jeu d'esprit, zbu despree, a display of wit ; a witticism. 

Mal a propos, mal a pro-po, unfit, unseasonable. 

Mauvaise honte, mo-vaze hongt, unbecoming bash fulness* 

Mot du guet, mo du ga, a watch-word. 

N'importe, naing-port, it matters not. 

Nous verrons, noo verrong, we shall see. 

Outre*, oo-tra, eccentric; blustering; not gentle. 

Petit maitre, peti maitr, a beau, a fop. 

Pis aller, pee zalla, a last resource. 

Prot6ge\ pro-ta-zha, a person patronised and protected. 

Recherche, re-shair-sha, rare ; scarce ; much sought afte^o 

Rouge, roozhc, red, or a kind of red paint for the face. 

Sang froid, sang fro-ah, cold blood ; indifference. 

Sans ce*remonie, sang seremonee, without ceremony. 

Savant, sa-vang, a wise or learned man. 

Soi-disant, soah-deezang, self-called ; pretended. 

Tant mieux, tang mee-u, so much the better. 

Tapis, ta-pee, the carpet.— Trait, tray, feature, touch, arrow* 

Tete a tete, tate a tate, face to face ; a private conversation. 

Tout ensemble, too tang-sangbl, taken as a whole ; the general 

Unique, wneek, singular. [appearance* 

Un bel esprit, ung bel espree, a wit, a virtuoso. 

Valet-de-chambre, vale de-shangbr, a chamber footman. 

Vis a vis, vee za vee, opposite ; face to face a 

Vive le roi, veev-le-roah, live the king 



VII. 



APPENDIX. LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES. 



211 



VII. LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The pronunciation has not been added to the Latin, because every 
letter is sounded, e final, not excepted. 



Ab initio, from the beginning. 

Ab urbe condita, from the building 
of the city; abrided thus, A. U. C. 

Ad captandum vulgus, to ensnare 
the vulgar. 

Ad infinitum, to infinity. 

Ad libitum, at pleasure. 

Ad referendum, for consideration. 

Ad valorem, according to value. 

A fortiori, with stronger reason. 

Alias, otherwise. 

Alibi, elsewhere. 

Alma mater, university, benign mo- 
ther. 

Anglice, in English. 

Anno domini, in the year of our 
Lord— A. D. 

Anno mundi, in the year of the 
world— A. M. 

A posteriori, from the latter, from 
behind. 

A priori, from the former, from be- 
fore, or from the cause. 

Arcanum, a secret. 

Arcana imperii, state secrets. 

Argumentum ad hominem, an ap- 
peal to the practices or professed 
principles of the adversary. 

Argumentum ad judicium, an ap- 
peal to the common sense of 
mankind. 

Argumentum ad fidem, an appeal 
to our faith. 

Argumentum ad populum, an ap- 
peal to the people. 

Argumentum ad passiones, an ap- 
peal to the passions. 

Audi alteram partem, hear both 
sides. 

Bona fide, in good faith, in reality. 

Contra, against. 

Cacoethes scribendi, an itch for 
writing. 

Caeteris paribus, other circumstan- 
ces being equal. 

Caput mortuum, the worthless re- 
mains, dead head. 

Compos mentis, in one's senses. 

Cum privilegio, with privilege. 



Data, things granted. 
De facto, from the fact, in reality 
De jure, from the law, justly. 
Dei gratia, by the grace or favor of 

God. 
Deo volente, God willing. D. V. 
Desunt caetera, the rest are wanting 
Desideratum, something desirable, 
a thing wanted. 

Dramatis personse, characters re- 
presented. 

Durante vita, during life. 

Durante placito, during pleasure. 

E pluribus unum, one composed 
of many. 

Ergo, therefore. 

Errata, errors.— Erratum, an error. 

Esto perpetua, let it be perpetual. 

Et csetera, and the rest, contr. &c. 

Ex cathreda, from the chair, with 
authority. 

Excerpta, extracts. 

Exempli gratia, as for example, 
contracted e. g. 

Ex officio, officially, by virtue of 
office. 

Ex parte, on one side. 

Ex tempore, without premeditation 

Fac simile, exact copy, or resem- 
blance. 

Fiat, let it be done, or made. 

Flagrante bello, during hostilities. 

Gratis, for nothing. 

Hora fugit, the hour or time flies, 

Humanum est errare, to err is hu- 
man. 

Ibidem, in the same place. 

Idem, the same. 

Id est, that is, contr. i. e. 

Ignoramus, an ignorant fellow, a 
dunce. 

In loco, in this place. 

Imprimis, in the first place. 

In terrorem, as a warning. 

In propria persona, in his own per 
son. 

In statu quo, in the former state. 

Inst, for instante, the present. 

Ipse dixit, on his sole assertion 



212 



APPENDIX. LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES. 



vn. 



Ipso facto, by the fact itself. 
Ipso jure, by the law itself. 
Item, also, article. 
Jure divino, by divine right. 
Jure humano, by human law. 
Jus gentium, the law of nations. 
Locum tenens, deputy, substitute. 
. Labor omnia vincit, labour over- 
comes every thing. 
Licentia vatum, a poetical license. 
Linguae lapsus, a slip of the tongue. 
Magna charta, the great charter,the 

basis of our-laws and liberties. 
Memento mori, remember death. 
Memorabilia, matters deserving of 

record. 
Memorandum, a thing to be re- 
membered. 
Meum et tuum, mine and thine. 
Multum in parvo, much in little, a 

great deal in a few words. 
Mutatis mutandis, the necessary 

changes being made. 
Mutato nomine, the name being 

changed. 
Nemo me impune lacesset, no one 

shall provoke me with impunity. 
Ne plus ultra, no farther, nothing 

beyond. 
Nolens volens. willing or unwilling. 
JNon compos mentis, not of a sound 

mind. 
Ne quid nimis, too much of one 

thing is good for nothing. 
Nisi dominus frustra, unless the 

Lord be with us, all efforts are in 

vain. 
Nem. con. (for nemine contradi- 

cente) none opposing. 
Nem dis. (for nemine dissentiente) 

none disagreeing. 
Omnibus, for all, a public convey- 
ance. 
Ore tenus, from the mouth. 
O tempora, O mores, O the times, 

O the manners. 
Omnes, all. 
Onus, burden. 
Passim, every where. 
Per se, by itself, alone. 
Posse comitatus, the power of the 

county. 
Prima facie, at first view or at first 

signt. 



Primum mobile, the main spring. 
Pro and con. for and against. 
Pro bono publico, for the good of 

the public. 
Pro loco et tempore, for the place, 

and time. 
Pro re nata, for a special business. 
Pro rege, lege, et grege ; for the 

king, the constitution, and the 

people. 
Quo animo, with what mind. 
Quo jure, by what right. 
Quoad, as far as. 
Quondam, formerly, former. 
Res publica, the commonwealth. 
Resurgam, I shall lise again. 
Rex, a king — Regina, a queen. 
Senatus consultum, a decree of se- 
nate, S. C. 
Seriatim, in regular order. 
Sine die, without specifying any 

particular day. 
Sine qua non, an indispensable 

pre-requisite or condition. ^ 
Statu quo, the state in which it was. 
Sub poena, under a penalty. 
Sui generis, of its own kind i. e. 

singular. 
Supra, above. 

Summum bonum, the chief good. 
Tria juncta in uno, three joined in 

one. 
To ties quoties, as often as. 
Una voce, with one voice, unani- 
mously. 
Ultimus, the last, (contr. ult.) 
Utile dulci, the useful with the plea 

sant. 
Verbatim, word for word. 
Versus, against. 
Vade mecum, go with me ; a book 

fit for being a constant com 

panion. 
Vale, farewell. 
Via, by the way of. 
Vice, in the room of. 
Vice versa, the reverse. 
Vide, see, (contr. v.) 
Vide ut supra, see as above. 
Vis poetica, poetic genius. 
Viva voce, orally; by the living 

voice. 
Vox populi, the voice of the people. 
Vulgo, commonly. 



VIII. APPENDIX. LAW PHEASES. 213 



VIII. LAW GLOSSARY. 

[Containing an explanation of some law terms and phrases in com- 
mon use.] 

Accessary. — One guilty of a felonious offence, not as principal, 
but by participation ; as by advice, command, concealment, &c. 

Ac etiam. — The clause in a writ, where the action requires bail, 
stating the true cause of action. 

Act of God. — Accidents from physical causes, which cannot be 
prevented ; as the death of a person. 

Alibi. — At another place, a plea often set up. 

Animus, — the mind, the intention. Quo animo ? with what in- 
tent. Animo furandi, with the intent to steal, &c. 

Arson. — The crime of maliciously burning the dwelling or out- 
house of another man. 

Assault and Battery. — Assault, the attempt to do corporeal vio 
lence or hurt to another. — Battery, the actual doing of it. 

Assumpsit. — An action upon the case on assumpsit, is an action 
for the compensation in damages for the breach or violation of any 
parol, contract (express or implied, verbal or written,) or promise. 

Attachment. — A taking of the person, goods, or estate, by a writ 
or precept in a civil action, to secure a debt or demand. 

Attainder.- — The sentence of a competent tribunal, upon a per- 
son convicted of treason or felony, which judgment attaints or 
corrupts his blood, so that he can no longer inherit lands, attended 
with forfeiture of property, loss of reputation, and disqualification 
to be a witness in a court of law. 

Baron et feme. — the law term for husband and wife. 

Burglary. — The act or crime of breaking into a house by night, 
with intent to commit a felony. 

Capias, (that you take,) a writ or process, it is of two sorts, viz. 

Capias ad respondendum. — A judicial writ before judgment, to 
take the defendant and make him answer the plantiff. 

Capias ad satisfaciendum. — (Commonly called a Ca. Sa.) a writ 
commanding the sheriff to take the body of the defendant, and him 
safely keep, &c. 

Carte blanche.— .The signature of a person on a blank paper, 
with room above to be afterwards filled with a promissory note, con- 
tract, &c. 

Cassetur bulla vel breve, that the bill or writ be quashed. 

Certiorari. — A writ issued from a superior to an inferior tribunal, 
commanding them to certify, or to return the record or proceedings 
before them, by which the cause is removed from the one to the other . 

Cognovit, (he has confessed,) is where the defendant having no 
available defence, gives the plaintiff an acknowledgment or written 
confession of the action, and suffers judgment to pass against him 
by default, i. e. without trial. 



214 APPENDIX. — LAW PHRASES. VIII. 

Crime. — In a general sense, a crime is an act that violates a law 
divine or human. In a more restricted sense, it denotes an offence 
or violation of public law, of a deeper and more atrocious nature, 
such as treason, murder, robbery, theft, arson, &c. Minor wrongs 
against public rights are called misdemeanors, against individuals or 
private rights, trespasses. 

Declaration. — A statement in legal form of the circumstance 
which constitutes the plaintiff's cause of action. 

Demurrer, is a pleading, which admits all such facts alleged by 
the adverse party as are well pleaded, and refers all the questions 
arising upon them to the court : it does not deny the truth, but 
only the legal sufficiency of the allegations demurred to. 

Distrain. — To make a seizure of goods. 

Distress. — The act of distraining ; taking any personal chattels 
from a wrong doer to answer a demand, or procure satisfaction for 
a wrong committed. 

Execution. — An instrument, warrant or official order, by which 
an officer is empowered to carry a judgment into effect. 

Ex post facto, (laws.) A.n ex post facto law, is one which 
operates upon a subject not liable to it at the time the law was 
made ; or a law which punishes acts already committed, in a man- 
ner in which they were not by law punishable when committed. 
Such laws are prohibited by the constitution of the United States. 

Felony. — A legal term for all offences which may be punished by 
imprisonment in the States prison. 

Fieri facias, (that you cause it to be done,) a judicial writ of 
execution, familiarly called by contraction, Fi. Fa, 

Testatum fieri facias. — An execution issued to another county, 
than the one in which the vendue is laid. 

Forma pauperis. — Poor persons may sue in forma pauperis, and 
have writs and counsel assigned without fee. 

Habeas Corpus, is a writ issued by a judge, directed to any per- 
son having another in custody, commanding him to produce him, 
or to show cause why he is in custody, 

Homicide, the killing of any human being. Justifiable homicide 
has no share of guilt at all ; — excusable homicide, very little ; — /e- 
lonious homicide is the highest crime against the law of nature, 
that a man is capable of committing, and includes self-murder, 
man-slaughter and murder. 

Infant. — A person under twenty-one years of age, and incapa- 
ble of making contracts. 

In limine. — In or at the beginning. 

Issue. — The point depending in a suit on which the parties join, 
and put the case to trial by a jury. — General issue, denies at once 
all the indictment or declaration, without new evasive matter. 

Larceny, (Latrocinium.) Theft — the stealing of any thing be- 
low a certain amount is called petty larceny; — above that value, 
grand larceny. 



VIII. APPENDIX. LAW PHRASES. 215 

Leading question. — A question put in such a way as to indicate 
the answer which the party wishes to get. The examiner leads 
him to the answer. 

Locum tenens. — One who holds the place of another as his deputy. 

Mandamus, a writ issued from a superior court to an inferior, 
or to an officer, commanding them to do certain acts, or to restrain 
them from doing any thing beyond their jurisdiction. 

Nolle prosequi, is used in law where the plaintiff will not pro- 
ceed any further. In criminal cases it amounts to an abandonment, 
by the public prosecutor, of an indictment- It does not prevent 
the finding of a new indictment, and therefore, does not operate as 
an acquittal, and is entered by the order of the court, on the motion 
of the public prosecutor. 

Non assumpsit, — the plea of Non assumpsit in an action of as- 
sumpsit, is the general issue or denial. 

Non pros, or non prosequitur, the name of a judgment rendered 
against a plaintiff for neglecting to prosecute his suit. 

Non suit, the name of a judgment rendered against a plantifF, 
when through defect of evidence or otherwise, he withdraws his 
cause from the jury, or neglects or refuses to prove his cause. 

Nul tiel record, (no such record,) the name of a plea or replica- 
tion, which denies a record, on which a declaration or plea is 
founded. 

Onus probandi. — Burden of proof. This lies upon the party to 
a suit who alleges the affirmative. He who has the onus probandi, 
is entitled to begin and close the argument of a case. 

Oyer and terminer. Fr. oyer, to hear ; terminer, to determine. 
The name of the criminal courts which have power to enquire into, 
hear and determine all treasons, felonies, crimes, and misdemeanors, 
and deliver the jails of all prisoners therein. 

Panel. — A schedule or roll containing the names of jurors, sum- 
moned by virtue of a writ of venire facias, and annexed to the writ. 

Particeps criminis. — A partner in crime. 

Plea, is the defendant's answer to the plaintiff's declaration. 

Posse comitatus. The armed power of the county, accompany* 
ing the sheriff to assist him in serving legal processes. 

Prochain amy. Next friend, one who .sues for an infant. 

Pro confesso. For confessed, as if confessed. 

Pro rata. — According to the rate. 

Profert and oyer. — When an action is founded upon a deed, (as 
a bond, covenant, &c.) and the party claims title under it, he must 
make profert in curia, by averring that he brings here into court 
the deed ; and craving oyer (hearing,) according to the original 
meaning of the word, is to crave to hear it read, though the imme- 
diate object now proposed in demanding oyer of a deed, is to obtain 
a copy of it. 

Rectus in curia. — Right in court. One who stands at the bar, 
and no one objects to him, or prefers any charge against him. 



216 APPENDIX. LAW PHRASES. VIII. 

Replevin. — An action or remedy granted on a distress, by which 
a person whose cattle or goods have been distrained, has them re- 
turned to him on giving security, to try the right of taking in a i 
suit at law. The writ by which a distress is replevied. 

Scire facias. — A judicial writ founded upon some record, and re- 
quiring the person against whom it is brought, to shew cause why 
the party bringing it, should not have advantage of such record, 
or (in the case of a scire facias, to repeal letters patent,) why the 
record should not be annulled and vacated. 

Subpoena, (under a penalty,) a judicial writ or command to an- 
swer to a suit, or to give evidence in a cause. It derives its name 
from the words therein, which charge the party to appear at the 
day and place assigned under a penalty. 

Subpoena ad testificandum, a subpoena to testify. 

Subpoena duces tecum. — A subpoena, commanding the witness 
to bring with him books and papers in his possession, belonging to, 
or wherein the parties are interested, &c. 

Tales. — Whenever the panel of jurors is exhausted, the court or- 
ders the sheriff to summon from the by-standers, the number of 
jurors wanted. The persons thus summoned, are called Tales-men. 

Tort, (Fr.)— A wrong or injury. 

Traverse, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has al- 
leged. To traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it. 

Trespass. — An unlawful act committed on the person, property, 
or relative rights of another. 

Trover, (Fr. trouver to find.) An action which a man has 
against another, who has found or obtained possession of any of 
his goods, and who refuses to deliver them on demand. It admits 
the original taking to have been lawful, but denies the right to con- 
vert them to his own use. This conversion is the gist (git) of the 
action. 

Venire facias. The process on an indictment for any petit mis- 
demeanor. It is of the nature of a summons. Also the writ or 
summons by which jurors are summoned to appear in court and 
serve. 

Venue. — The statement in a declaration of the county or place, 
in which the facts are alleged to have occurred, and where the 
cause is intended to be tried : as, County of Albany, ss. 

Verdict, (verum dictum, true declaration.) — The answer of a 
jury given to the court, concerning any matter of fact in any cause, 
civil or criminal committed to their trial and examination. 

Voire dire. — (To speak the truth,] is when a witness previously 
to his giving evidence in a cause, is sworn as to his interest, &c. 

Vi et arrnis. — With force and arms, words used in a writ of tres- 
pass. 

Writ. — A precept issued from the proper authority, to the sheriff 
or other subordinate officer, commanding him to perform some act. 

THE END. 



BULLIONS' 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK, 

ON THE SAME PLAN, 



FOR THE USE OF 



Colleges, Academies & Common Schools. 

(Published by Pratt, Woodford & Co., N, Y.) 

In preparing this series, the main object has been, First: 
To provide for the use of schools a set of class books on 
this important branch of study, more simple in their ar- 
rangement, more complete in their parts, and better adapted 
to the purposes of public instruction, than any heretofore in 
use in our public Seminaries : and Secondly, to give the 
whole a uniform character by following, in each, substan- 
tially, the same arrangement of parts, using the same 
grammatical terms, and expressing the definitions, rules, 
and leading parts, as nearly as the nature of the case 
would admit in the same language ; and thus to render the 
study of one Grammar a more profitable introduction to the 
study of another than it can be, when the books used dif- 
fer so widely from each other in their whole style and ar- 
rangement, as those now in use commonly do. By this 
means, it is believed, much time and labor will be saved, 
both to teacher and pupil, — the analogy and peculiarities 
of the diffeTent languages being constantly kept in view, will 
show what is common to all, or peculiar to each, — the confu- 
sion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the use of 



elementary works, differing widely from each other in lan- 
guage and structure will be avoided, — and the progress of 
the student rendered much more rapid, easy and satis- 
factory. 

These works form a complete series of elementary 
books, in which the substance of the best Grammars in 
each language has been compressed into a volume of 
convenient size, handsomely printed on a fine paper, 
neatly and strongly bound, and at a moderate price. 
The whole series is now submitted to the judgment of 
a discerning public, and especially to teachers and su- 
perintendents of schools, and seminaries of learning through- 
out the United States. 

The following notices and recommendations of the 
works separately, and of the series, both from individuals 
of the highest standing in the community, and from the 
public^ press, will furnish some idea of the plan pro- 
posed, and of the manner in which it has been executed 

I. THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Comprising the substance of the most approved English Grammars 
extant — with copious exercises in Parsing and Syntax. Fifth edition 
with an Appendix, of various and useful matter, pp. 216, 12 mo. New- 
York, Robinson, Pratt & Co. 

This work, on the plan of Murray's Grammar, has been prepared with 
much care, and with special reference to the wants of our Common 
Schools. It comprises in a condensed form, and expressed in plain and 
perspicuous language, all that is useful and important in the works of 
the latest and best writers on this subject, — an advantage possessed in an 
equal degree by no similar work now in use. It is the result not only 
of much study and careful comparison, but of nearly twenty-five years 
experience in the school room, during which, the wants of the pupil 
and the character of books best adapted to those wants, have been care- 
fully noted ; and its adaptation to the purpose of instruction has now been 
thoroughly tested and approved in some of the best schools in this coun- 
try. It is beautifully printed on a fine strong paper, neatly and firmly 



hound, and forms one of the most complete, useful, and economical school 
books ever offered to the public. The following are a few extracts from, 

NOTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The undersigned have great satisfaction in recommending to the pub- 
lic, " The Principles of English Grammar," by Prof. Bullions, of the 
Albany Academy. Proceeding upon the plan of Murray, he has availed 
himself of the labors of the most distinguished grammarians, both at 
home and abroad ; and made such a happy use of the helps afforded him, 
that we know of no work of the kind, in the same compass, which is 
equal to it in point of merit. Among its many excellencies, it is not the 
least, that Prof. B. ljas given a practical illustration of every principle 
from the beginning to the end ; and the possession of his Grammar en- 
tirely supersedes the necessity of procuring a separate volume of Exer- 
cises on the Rules of Syntax. In a word, we can truly say, in the lan- 
guage of the author, " that there is nothing of much importance in 
Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of subsequent writers, that 
will not be found condensed here." 

John Ludlow, Alonzo Crittenton, 

Isaac Ferris, J. M. Garfield, 

Alfred Conkling, Robert McKee. 

T. Romeyn Beck. 
Albany, October "8, 1842. 



[An Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Trustees of the AU 
bany Female Academy, ,] 
At a meeting of the trustees of the Albany Female Academy, held on 
the third instant, the book committee reported, that they had examined 
Professor Bullions' English Grammar, recently published in this city : 
and that in their opinion, it contains all that is useful in the most im- 
proved treatises now in use, as well as much valuable original matter : 
that from the copious exercises in false syntax, it will supersede the ne- 
cessity of a separate volume on that subject ; and recommend that it 
should be used as the text book in this institution. 

On motion, it was resolved, that the report of the committee be ac- 
cepted, and the'treatise on English Grammar ; by the Rev. Peter Bul- 
lions, adopted as the text book in this academy. 

An Extract from the Minutes. 

A. Crittenton, Secretary of the 
Board of Trustees, and 
Principal of the Academy. 
Albany, October 13, 1834. 

Sing-Sing, November 1, 1834. 
Dear Sir — I have examined your English Grammar with no small 
degree of satisfaction ; and though I am not in the habit of recommend- 
ing books in this manner, I am constrained in this case to say, I think 
you have conferred another important favour on the cause of education. 



The great defects of most of the English grammars now in use, particu- 
larly in the omission of many necessary definitions, or in the want of 
perspicuity in those given, and also in the rules of construction, are in a 
great measure happily supplied. I am so well pleased with the result of 
your labors, that I have adopted it, (as I did your Greek Grammar) for 
both our institutions. Yours respectfully, 

Nathaniel S. Prime, Principal of 
Rev. P. Bullions, Mi. Pleasant Academy, 



The undersigned hold the responsibility of recommendation as an im 
portant one — often abused, and very frequently used to obliged a per. 
sonal friend, or to get rid of an urgent applicant. They further appeal 
to their own conduct for years past, to show that they have only occa- 
sionally assumed this responsibility ; and therefore feel the greater confi- 
dence in venturing to recommend the examination, and the adoption of 
the Rev. Dr. Bullions' English Grammar, as at once the most concise 
and the most comprehensive of any with which they are acquainted ; as 
furnishing a satisfactory solution of nearly all the difficulties of the Eng- 
lish language ; as containing a full series of exercises in false syntax, 
with rules for their correction ; and finally, that the arrangement is in 
every way calculated to carry the pupil from step to step in the success- 
ful acquisition of that most important end of education, the knowledge 
and use of the English language. GIDEON HAWLEY, 

T. ROMEYN BECK, 

March 1, 1842. . JOHN A. DIX. 



A cursory examination of the English Grammar of Dr. Bullions, has 
satisfied me, that it has just claims on public favour. It is concise and 
simple ; the matter is well digested ; the exercises excellent, and the ty- 
pographical execution worthy of all praise. The subscriber takes plea- 
sure in recommending it to the notice of Teachers, and of all persons 
interested in education. ALONZO POTTER. 

Union College, Sept. 6, 1842. 



The English Grammar of the Rev. Dr. Bullions, appears to me, to be 
the best manual which has appeared as yet. With all the good points 
of Murray, it has additions and emendations, which I cannot but think 
would have commended themselves to Murray himself, and if I were a 
teacher of English Grammar, I would without hesitation prefer it to any 
other book of the kind, JAMES W. ALEXANDER, 

Professor of Belles Lettres, College of N. J. 

Princeton, Aug. 15, 1842 



Extract of a letter from Rev. Benjamin Hale, D.D., President of Ge 

neva College N. Y. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions. — Dear Sir — I have lately procured a copy of your 

English Grammar, and given it such attention as my time has permitted, 

and I do not hesitate to express my conviction, that it is entitled to higher 



confidence than any other English Grammar in use among us, and my 
wish, that it may come into general use. I have seen enough to satisfy 
me, that you have diligently consulted the best sources, and combined 
your materials with discrimination and judgment. We have, as a facul- 
ty, recommended it by placing it on the list of books to be used by can- 
didates in preparation for this college. I have personally recommended 
it, and will continue to recommend it, as I have opportunity. 

Very respectfully, dear sir, your friend, &c. 
BENJAMIN HALE. 
Geneva College, July 13, 1842. 



Extract of a letter from Rev. Cyrus Mason, D.D., Rector of the Grammar 
School in the University of New- York. 

University, New-York, June 13th, 1842. 
Rev. Dr. Bullions. — Dear Sir — At the suggestion of the late Mr. 
Leckie, head classical master in the Grammar School, we began to in- 
troduce your grammars at the opening of the present year. We have 
made use chiefly of the Greek and English Grammar. Tie result thus 
far is a conviction that we have profited by the change, which I was 
very slow to make ; and I doubt not that our farther experience will con- 
firm the good opinion we entertain of your labors in this department of 
learning. Wishing you a large reward, I remain, very truly yours, 

C. MASON, Rector. 

NOTICES FROM THE PUBLIC PRESS. 

From a Report presented to the Jefferson Co. Asso- 
ciation of Teachers, on the English Grammars now in 
use, the merits of each, and the best method of teaching 
them. By the Rev. J. R. Boyd, Principal of Black Ri- 
ver Institute. 

<c 2. The Grammar by Prof. Bullions of the Albany Aca- 
demy, is constructed on the same plan as that of Brown \ 
and while it is not so copious in its exercises, nor so full in 
its observations upon the language, yet it is far more simple 
in its phraseology, more clear in its arrangement, more free 
perhaps from errors or things needing improvement, and at 
the same time contains all that is necessary to be learned in 
gaining a knowledge of the structure of our language. The 
Rules of Syntax and observations under them, are expressed 
generally in the best manner. The Verb is most vividly ex- 
plained, and that portion of the work contains much not to 
be found in other grammars, while it judiciously omits a 
great deal to be found in them, that is unworthy of insertion. 
" It is excellent upon Prosody, and upon Poetic Diction, 



and gives an admirable summary of directions for correct 
and elegant writing, and the different forms of composition. 
The typography of the book cannot be too highly commended 
— a circumstance that greatly affects the comfort and improve- 
ment of the learner. 

u This grammar is equally well adapted to the beginner 
and to the advanced scholar. The course of instruction 
which Prof. B. recommends in the use of his grammar, 
seems wisely adapted to secure in the readiest manner the 
improvement of the pupil. The book is not so large as to 
appal the beginner, nor so small as to be of little use to those 
advanced. On the whole, in my judgment, no work has yet 
appeared, which presents equally high claims to general use. 
It is copious without redundancy — it is well printed, and 
forms a volume pleasing to the eye. It is lucid and simple, 
while in the main, it is philosophically exact. — Among the 
old Grammars, our decided preference is given to that of 
Prof. Bullions." 

[From the Albany Argus.] 

Principles of English Grammar. — This work besides containing a 
full system of grammar, is rendered more immediately useful for acade- 
mies and common schools, by containing copious examples in good gram- 
mar for parsing, and in bad grammar for correction ; and all of these are 
arranged directly under the rule to which they apply. Thus, instead of 
two books, which are required, (the grammar and the exercises,) the 
learner finds both in one, for a price at least not greater than the others. 

[From the Newburgh Journal.] 
Bullions' English Grammar. — It is not one of the smallest evils con- 
nected with our present system of common school education, that our 
schools are flooded with such a variety of books on elementary subjects, 
not only differing in arrangement, but frequently involving absurd and 
contradictory principles- And to no subject are these remarks more ap- 
plicable, than to English Grammar. And until some one elementary 
work of an approved character shall be generally introduced into our 
common schools, we despair of realizing a general proficiency in this 
important branch of education, It is with pleasure, therefore, that we 
witness the increasing popularity of " Bullions' English Grammar." 
From a familiar acquaintance with the work, from the publication of 
the first edition, we have no hesitation in pronouncing it the best Gram- 
mar with which we are acquainted. The perspicuity of its definitions, 
the correctness of its principles, the symmetry of its arrangements, as 
well as the neat and accurate form in which it is presented, and withal 
the cheapness of the work, are so many recommendations to its general use. 



[From the Albany Evening Journal.] 

Professor Bullions' English Grammar is obviously the fruit of sound 
and enlightened judgment, patient labor and close reflection. It partakes 
of the character both of an original work and of a compilation. Fol- 
lowing the principles of Murray, and adopting in the main the plan of 
Lennie, the most distinguished of his successors, the aim of the author, 
as he states in his preface, has been to correct what is erroneous, to re- 
trench, what is superfluous or unimportant, to compress what is prolix, to 
elucidate what is obscure, and to determine what is left doubtful, in the 
books already in use. In laboring to accomplish this excellent design, he 
has contrived to condense, in very perspicuous language, within the 
compass of a small, handsomely printed volume, about 200 pages, and 
costing but 50 cents, all that is requisite in this form to the acquisition 
of a thorough knowledge of the grammar of our language. It contains 
so great a number of exercises in parsing and syntax, judiciously inter- 
spersed, as to supersede the necessity of separate manuals of exercises 
now in use. Among other highly useful things to be found in this book, 
and not usually met with in works of this nature, are some very valua- 
ble critical remarks, and a pretty long "list of improper expressions," 
which unhappily have crept into use in different parts of our country. 
Under the head of Prosody, the author has, it is believed, given a bet- 
ter explanation of the principles of English versification, than is to be 
found in any other work of this nature in this country. In short, I 
hazard the prediction that this will be found to be decidedly the plainest, 
most perfect, and most useful manual of English grammar that has yet 
appeared. Z. 

EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. 

The following, are extracts from letters from County Su- 
perintendents of Common Schools in the State of New- York, 
to whom copies of the work had been sent for examination. 
From Alexander Fonda, Esq. Dep. SupU of Com. Schools, Schenectady Co. 

Schenectady, March 30, 1842. 

Dear Sir — I acknowledge the receipt of a copy of your English 
Grammar, left upon my office desk yesterday afternoon. When in your 
city some three weeks since, I was presented with a copy by S, S. Ran- 
dall, Esq. ; from the examination I was enabled to give it, and from the 
opinion expressed in relation to it, by one of the oldest and most ex- 
perienced teachers of this county, to whom I presented it, as well as 
from the knowledge I possessed by reputation of its author, I had before 
I received the copy from you, determined to introduce it as far as I was 
able, as a class book in the schools of this county. 
From Chauncey Goodrich, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Onondaga Co 

Canal, June 24, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Your favor of the 1st instant has just come to hand. The 
Grammar referred to has been received and examined. I am fully sa- 
tisfied of its superior merits as a grammar for common schools, over any 



other work I have seen. I shall take the earliest measures for its intro- 
duction into the schools under my supervision. 

From Roswell K. Bourne, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Chenango C^ 

Pitcher, June 30. 1842. 
Dear Sir — Sometime since I received a copy of a work on English gram- 
mar, by the Rev. Peter Bullions, D.D. for which I am much obliged. I 
have given the book as close an examination as circumstances would 
permit. The book is well got up, and exhibits the thorough acquaint- 
ance of the author with his subject. I think it well calculated for our 
common schools. 

From Garnsey Beach, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Putnam Co, 

Patterson, July 2, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Yours of the first ult, was received on Thursday last. As 
it respects your Grammar I have carefully examined it, and without en- 
tering into particulars, I consider it the best I have ever seen, and as 
such, I have recommended it to the several schools under my care. 
From O. W. Randall, Esq. Dep, Supt. of Common Schools, Oswego Co, 

PJicenix, July 2, 1842. 

Mr. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — I have for the last two weeks devoted 
some considerable time, in perusing your system of English Grammar, 
and in reply to yours, requesting my views of the work, I can cheer- 
fully say, that its general arrangment, is admirably adapted either to the 
novice or adept. The § 27th and § 28th on verbs, with the attendant remarks, 
are highly important, and essential to the full completion of any system 
of grammar. The work taken together is remarkable for simplicity, 
lucidity and exactness, and is calculated not only to make the correct 
grammariari, but also a correct prosodian. Whatever may be its fate in 
the field, it enters with a large share of merit on its side, and with full 
as fair prospect of success as any work extant. 

From W. S. Preston, Esq. Dep- Supt. of Com Schools, Suffolk Co, N, Y, 

Patchogue, L, I. July 6, 1842. 
Prof. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Some time since I received a copy of 
your English Grammar, for which I am much obliged. I have devoted 
as much time to its perusal as circumstances would permit, and can say 
of it, that I believe it claims decided piv rerence over the Grammars ge- 
nerally used in schools throughout this country, and indeed I may say, 
over the many works on that science extant. 

From James Henry, Esq. Dep. Supt, of Common Schools, Herkimer Co* 

Little-Falls, July 11, 1842. 

Prof. Bullions, — Sir — I have read with as much attention as my avo- 
cations would allow, the work you had the kindness to send me, upon 
English Grammar, and so far as I am capable of forming an opinion of 
the merits of your book, I concur generally in the views expressed in 
the extract from the report of Mr. Boyd, as contained in your circular. 



9 

From D. H. Stevens, Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Franklin Co, N. Y* 

Moira, Aug. 27, 1842. 

Rev. P, Bullions, — Dear Sir — On Wednesday the 24th instant, the 
committee determined upon a series of books, and I have the happiness 
to inform you, that your English Grammar will be reported on the first 
Wednesday in October at the next meeting of the Association, as the 
mo3t brief, perspicuous and philosophical work, upon that subject within 
our knowledge. 

From R. W. Finch, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools. Steuben Co. N. Y' 

Bath, Sept. 11, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Having at length given your English Grammar a careful 
perusal ; and having compared it with all the modern works on the sub- 
ject, which have any considerable claims to merit, I am prepared to make 
a more enlightened decision, and one that is satisfactory to myself. The 
work has my decided preference. 

From J. W. Fairfield, and Cyrus Curtiss, Esqrs. Dep. Superintendents 
of Common Schools, Hudson, N, Y. 

Hudson, Sept. 15, 1842. 

Rev. P. Bullions, — Sir — We have examined a copy of your English 
Grammar, with reference to the introduction of the same into our pub- 
lic schools, and we take pleasure in saying that the examination has 
proved very satisfactory. We cannot, without occupying too much 
space, specify the particular points of excellence which we noticed in 
the arrangement of the different parts, the clearness of expression and 
illustration, and the precise adaptation of the Rules of Syntax, to the 
principles previously laid down. It is sufficient to say, that we believe 
it to be, in all the requisites of a good school book, superior to any other 
English Grammar which has come under our observation. 

II. THE PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR, &c. 

This work is upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long 
and so well known as a text book in this country. The object aimed at 
was to combine with all that is excellent in the work of Adam, the im- 
portant results of subsequent labors in this field, — to correct errors and 
supply defects, — to bring the whole up to that point which the present 
state of classical learning requires, — and to give it such a form as to ren- 
der it a suitable part of the series. The following notices are furnished. 

From Rev. James W. Alexander, Prof. Belles Lettres in the College of 
New-Jersey. 

Princeton, N. J. Aug. 15, 1842. 

1 have examined with some care the Latin Grammar of the Rev. Dr. 
Bullions. It is, if I may hazard a judgment, a most valuable work, 
evincing that peculiar apprehension of the pupil's necessities, which 
nothing but long continued practice as an instructor can produce. Among 
our various Latin Grammars, it deserves the place which is occupied by 
the best ; and no teacher, as I think, need hesitate a moment about in 
traducing it 



10 

[From the BibliGal Repertory, or Princeton Review, Jan. 1842] 
The Principles of Latin Grammar, &c. — This completes the series 
proposed by the learned author, who has now furnished us with an Eng- 
lish, a Latin, and a Greek Grammar, which have this peculiar recom- 
mendation that they are arranged in the same order, and expressed in 
the same terms, so far as the differences of the languages permit. The 
basis of this manual is the well known Grammar of Adam, an excellent 
summary, but at the same time one which admitted of retrenchment, ad- 
dition, and emendation, all which have been ably furnished by Dr. Bul- 
lions- We have not made a business of perusing the work laboriously, 
but we have looked over the whole and bestowed particular attention on 
certain parts ; and therefore feel at liberty to recommend it with great 
confidence, especially to all such teachers as have been in the habit of 
using Adam's Grammar. 

III. THE PRINCIPLES OF GREEK GRAMMAR, See. 

The object of this publication was to provide a comprehensive manual 
of Greek Grammar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as to the 
more advanced class of students in our schools and colleges, and espe- 
cially of those under the author's own care. To this end, the leading 
principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in rules as few and brief as 
possible, so as to be easily committed to memory, and at the same time 
so comprehensive and perspicuous, as to be of general and easy application. 

The following notices of this work, from different sources, will show 
the estimate formed of it by competent judges. 

Bullions' Greek Grammar. — We have examined the second edition 
of Dr. Bullions' Greek Grammar, and consider it, upon the whole, the 
best grammar of the Greek language with which wc are acquainted 
The parts to be committed to memory are both concise and comprehen- 
sive ; the illustrations are full without prolixity, and the arrangement na- 
tural and judicious. The present edition is considerably reduced in size 
from the former, without, as we apprehend, at all impairing its value. 

It discovers in its compilation much labor and research, as well as 
sound judgment. We are persuaded that the general use of it in our 
grammar schools and academies would facilitate the acquisition of a 
thorough knowledge of the language. Judicious teachers pursuing the 
plan marked out by the author in his preface, would usually conduct 
their pupils to a competent knowledge of the language in a less time by 
several months than by the systems formerly in use. We therefore give 
it our cordial recommendation. ELIPHALET NOTT, 

R. PROUDFIT, 

Union College, December 19, 1840. ALONZO POTTER. 

Extract of a letter from Rev. Daniel D» Whedon, A.M. Professor of An- 
cient Languages and Literature; in the Wesley an University, Middleton, Ct. 

Wesley an University, March 29, 1842. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Although I have not the honor of 



11 

your personal acquaintance, I take the liberty of addressing to you my 
thanks for your excellent Greek Grammar. Nothwithstanding many 
personal, urgent, and interested appeals in favor of other grammars — and 
our literary market seems to abound with that kind of stock — the in- 
trinsic superiority of your manual over every rival, induced me, after I 
saw your last edition, to adopt it in the Greek department of the Wes- 
leyan University, and the success of my present Freshman class, amply 
justifies the course. 

Extract cf a letter from Henry Bannister, A.M. Principal of the Academy 
in Fairfield, N. Y. 

Fairfield Academy, May 12, 1842. 

Rev. Doct. Bullions, — Sir^-Sometime since I received your English 
and Greek Grammar, of each, one copy ; and, if it is not too late, I 
would now return you my sincere thank*. I have not found in any work, 
suitable for a text book in schools, an analysis of the verb so strictly 
philosophical, and at the same time so easy to the learner to master and 
to retain when mastered, as that contained in your work. The editorial 
observations on government, and indeed the whole matter and arrange- 
ment of the Syntax, especially commend your work to general use in 

schools. 

[From the Princeton Review, foT Jan. 1840.] 

It is with pleasure we welcome a second edition of this manual, which 
we continue to regard as still unsurpassed by any similar work in our 
language. The typography and the quality of the paper are uncommon- 
ly gooJ. We observe valuable additions and alterations. For all that we 
can see, everything worth knowing in Thiersch is here condensed into a 
few pages. We have certainly never seen the anatomy of the Greek 
verb so neatly demonstrated. The Syntax is full, and presents the lead- 
ing facts and principles, by rules, so as to be easily committed to mem- 
ory. To learners who are beginning the language, and especially to 
teachers of grammar schools, we earnestly recommend this book. 



[From the New- York Observer.] 
• Bullions' Principles of Greek Grammar, &c. 2d edition. With 
pleasure we hail the second edition of this valuable work, and are happy 
to find that the revision which it has undergone has resulted in decided 
improvements. Formed, as it is, on the basis of that most symmetrical 
of all modern grammars. Dr. Moor's Greek Grammar, which its learned 
author never lived to complete. It is now made to embrace not only the 
general rules, but all the minuticB essential to a critical knowledge of 
that ancient and elegant language. One of the chief excellencies of this 
model, and one that is fully retained in this grammar, is to be found in 
the simplicity, perspicuity, conciseness, and yet fulness of the definitions 
and rules for the various modifications of the language. The sense is 
clearly expressed, while scarcely a particle is used that could have been 
dispensed with. We have no hesitation in expressing the opinion, that 
Dr. B. has produced the most complete and useful Greek grammar that 
is to be found in the English language. 



12 
EECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SERIES. 

From the Rev. John Ludlow, D.D. Provost of the University of Penn. 

No one I think can ever examine the series of Grammars published by 
Dr. Bullions, without a deep conviction of their superior excellence. 
When the English Grammar, the first in the series, was published in 
1834. it was my pleasure, in connexion with some honored individuals, 
in the city of Albany, to bear the highest testimony to its worth ; that 
testimony, if I mistake not, received the unanimous approval of all 
whose judgment can or ought to influence public opinion. I have seen, 
with great gratification, that the 2d and 3d in the series, the Latin and 
Greek, have met with the same favorable judgement, which I believe to 
be entirely deserved, and in which I do most heartily concur. 

From the Hon. Alfred Conkling, Judge of the United States Court in the 
Northern District of New- York, published in the Cayuga Patriot. 
Bullions' Series of Grammars. — By the recent publication of " The 
Principles of Latin Grammar," this series of grammars (English, Latin, 
and Greek,) is at length completed. To their preparation, Dr. Bullions 
has devoted many years of the best portion of his life. In the composi- 
tion of these books, he has shown an intimate acquaintance with the works 
of his ablest predecessors; and while upon the one hand, he has not scru- 
pled freely to avail himself of their labors, on the other hand, by studi- 
ously avoiding all that is objectionable in them, and by re-modelling, im- 
proving, and illustrating the rest, he has unquestionably succeeded in con- 
structing the best— decidedly the very best — grammar, in each of the 
three above named languages, that has yet appeared. Such is the deli- 
berate and impartial judgment which has been repeatedly expressed by 
the most competent judges, respecting the English and Greek grammars ; 
and such, I hesitate not to believe, will be the judgment formed of the 
Latin grammar. But independently of the superiority of these works 
separately considered, they possess, collectively, the great additional re- 
commendation of having their leading parts arranged in the same order \ 
and, as far as properly can be done, expressed in the same language. An 
acquaintance with one of them, therefore, cannot fail greatly to facilitate 
the study of another, and at the same time, by directing the attention of 
the student distinctly to the points of agreement and of difference in the 
several languages, to render his acquisitions more accurate, and at the 
same time to give him clearer and more comprehensive views of the 
general principles of language. The importance of using in academies 
and schools of the United States none but ably written and unexcep 
tionable school books, is incalculable ; and without intending unnecessa- 
rily to depreciate the labors of others, as a friend of sound education, I 
cannot refrain from expressing an earnest hope of seeing this series of 
grammars in general use. They are all beautifully printed on very good 
paper, and are sold at very reasonable prices. 




cv 




